Communication Models

A representation of an idea used to describe communication phenomena.\

Linear, interactional, transactional, and Westley and Maclean's models.\

A sender communicates a message to a receiver through a channe;

Environmental noise.\

It explains one-way communication effectively.\

It does not explain complex, face-to-face communication well.\

The receiver can respond by sending messages back.\

People simultaneously act as both sender and receiver.\

Communication is simultaneous, complex, and influenced by environmental noise.\

How noise, subjective interpretation, and communication channels influence messages.\

Channels can control or change the types of messages being communicated.\

Social media influencing the messages people receive.\

Communication develops continuously in an ongoing spiral.\

Communication becomes more complex as children develop.\

Communication becomes more complex as people become more familiar with one another.\

It is not particularly helpful.\

Daniel Goleman.\

The capacity to recognise, understand, and manage emotions.\

Five.\

Understanding one's own emotions, strengths, and limitations.\

Managing one's emotions and their effects on behaviour.\

The capacity for learning and self-improvement.\

Understanding other people's emotions and reactions.\

Effectively interacting with others and maintaining relationships.\

Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey.\

12 items.\

Perceiving, assimilating, understanding, and managing emotion.\

People with higher emotional intelligence would be better communicators.\

Emotionally intelligent people were more likely to be viewed as effective communicators.\

Greater perceived group cohesion.\

No, research suggests it can change and is not always indicative of others' abilities.\

Ronald Riggio.\

Seven.\

The ability to spontaneously and accurately express emotions, attitudes, and interpersonal feelings.\

The ability to quickly decode and understand emotional communication.\

It relates to empathy and emotional identification.\

The ability to control which emotions are displayed.\

Verbal skills and the ability to engage others in interaction.\

Understanding verbal communication and appropriate behaviour in social situations.\

The ability to manage oneself in social situations and control self-presentation.\

The skilful use of social skills to influence others and achieve an outcome.\

No, different social skills are not necessarily related.\

No, different skills are associated with different outcomes.\

Whatever the listener thinks it means.\

Preoccupation, prejudgment, reactivity, and lack of motivation or effort.\

Being distracted by one's own thoughts or concerns.\

Assuming we already know what someone is going to say.\

Emotionally reacting to the content instead of listening objectively.\

Not wanting or making the effort to listen.\

Pretending to listen without genuinely paying attention.\

Continually focusing the conversation on ourselves.\

Paying attention to only a small portion of a conversation.\

Listening with hostility or expecting criticism.\

Listening for information that can be used to attack someone.\

Focusing on words while neglecting emotional tone.\

Assuming that other people's thoughts and feelings mirror our own.\

That others think and feel the same way they do.\

People assume their partners feel the same way about the relationship as they do.\

Care, supportiveness, emotional states, emotional suppression, and parenting behaviour.\

It can be associated with greater relationship satisfaction and better outcomes.\

It can contribute to poorer relationship outcomes.\

Yes, it can also affect body image and body weight perceptions.\

Affirmatives, paraphrasing, and active listening.\

Paraphrasing, asking appropriate questions, and maintaining moderate-to-high non-verbal involvement.\

Simple acknowledgement, advice, and active listening.\

Showing engagement through verbal or non-verbal responses.\

It should be appropriate and genuine.\

Verbal and non-verbal reinforcement.\

A question that elicits a single piece of information.\

A question that encourages elaboration and greater connection.\

Paraphrasing, repeating, and reflecting on information.\

Sharing personal information, thoughts, or feelings with another person.\

Oversharing personal information with strangers.\

The social expectation that people return actions, favours, or treatment they receive.\

Alvin Gouldner.\

An expectation about appropriate conduct for individuals and groups.\

A cycle of mutual helping and care.\

Negative behaviour can be reciprocated, creating escalating conflict.\

A cycle in which threats and punishment are repeatedly returned and intensified.\

Harmful behaviour can be reciprocated just like helpful behaviour.\

Reciprocity involving threats and punishment during conflict.\

By pressing buttons to make cooperative or harmful decisions.\

They increased their own threatening and punishing behaviour in return.\

Aggressive behaviour, avoidant behaviour, and effective conflict resolution.\

Responding to another person's behaviour with similar behaviour.\

Competition, collaboration, and avoidance in relationships.\

People's competitive and avoidant strategies were associated with similar strategies reported by roommates and friends.\

Reciprocity is a strong influence on interpersonal behaviour.\

It can hurt and threaten a person's face.\

How couples respond to criticism.\

53 couples.\

Justifying, denying, countercomplaining, and passing.\

Providing reasons to defend the criticised behaviour.\

Rejecting or refusing to accept the criticism.\

Responding to criticism by raising a complaint against the critic.\

Avoiding or deflecting the criticism.\

Acknowledging the criticism, agreeing where appropriate, apologising, or planning to improve.\

They agree with one another more often.\

It implies something is wrong with the person, their behaviour, or the relationship.\

Yes.\

Statements that communicate personal feelings and perspectives without directly blaming another person.\

They reduce defensiveness and make people more likely to listen.\

"I'm not feeling heard or understood at the moment."\

Kusubany.\

Students reported less anger, defiance, and alienation than when reading you-statements.\

They felt more sympathetic, caring, and supported.\

Taking time to recognise the other person's perspective.\

Considering how defensive the target might feel.\

How different communication perspectives influence defensiveness.\

It helps people consider their own and the other person's perspective.\

A person's sense of morality, authority, honour, and social identity.\

Communication that threatens someone's dignity, identity, or social standing.\

A threat to someone's desire to be accepted, respected, and valued.\

Dignity, honour, pride, and relationship value.\

The desire for a relationship to be strong and equally valued by both people.\

A threat that exposes someone to judgement or restricts their freedom of choice.\

The relationship between criticism, face threats, and relationship outcomes.\

Anger, embarrassment, and anxiety.\

Relationship damage.\

Criticism about something happening within the relationship.\

Criticism about a specific action or behaviour that someone should change.\

Criticism directed at who someone is as a person.\

Fundamental personal traits or characteristics.\

Specific behaviours.\

Privately.\

Tone and clarity.\

They focus on specific behavioural problems rather than broad personal criticisms.\

Authority and motive.\

Whether you are qualified or have relevant experience to criticise them.\

Whether the criticism is necessary and intended to benefit the other person.\

Use I-statements, consider perspectives, criticise behaviour, communicate privately and fairly, and monitor tone.\

Viewing oneself as separate and distinct from others.\

Western cultures.\

Individualism, autonomy, and personal uniqueness.\

Viewing oneself in relation to social relationships and context.\

Eastern cultures.\

Collectivism, relationships, and social harmony.\

Directness, self-expression, and achieving individual goals.\

Indirect communication, tolerance, forgiveness, and social harmony.\

Cultural differences between Americans and Chinese people in responding to poor behaviour.\

How Americans and Japanese people respond to incorrect directions from different people.\

Whether incorrect directions came from a fellow student or an art teacher.\

Cultural differences emerged in responses intended to save the teacher's face.\

Being considerate of making others uncomfortable and avoiding conflict.\

Avoiding someone rather than risking saying something hurtful.\

A tendency to speak directly and stand by one's opinions.\

Directness and not backing down.\

Rules of appropriate behaviour differ across cultures.\

The relationship between pupil dilation and liking.\

Pupils dilated when people viewed things they liked.\

Shock, food, and attraction.\

Pupil dilation and trust during an investment task.\

Investors deciding whether to invest real money with a partner.\

Approach, withdrawal, expansion, and contraction.\

An attentive posture characterised by leaning forward.\

Drawing back or moving away.\

An upright or backward-leaning posture associated with pride, arrogance, or disdain.\

A drooping posture associated with depression or feeling downcast.\

The head and trunk.\

Cold, shy, passive, or rejecting.\

The relationship between posture and perceptions of competence.\

More confident, approachable, professional, and better paid.\

Automatically copying the non-verbal posture of people we interact with.\

Expressing affection, unity, and other emotions.\

Touch, cuddling, and affection in romantic relationships.\

Relationship strength and indicators such as sexual attractiveness and frequency.\

Affectionate touch between children and parents.\

Children's attachment to affectionate parents.\

They were less likely to remember childhood affectionate touch.\

Oxytocin.\

During cradling, breastfeeding, hugging, and sexual activity.\

Whether people can communicate emotions through touch alone.\

A participant assigned to communicate an emotion through touch.\

A participant assigned to identify the emotion communicated through touch.\

By touching the decoder's hand or arm.\

People were relatively accurate at identifying emotions.\

Stroking and interlocking fingers.\

Hitting and squeezing.\

Trembling.\

Swinging or shaking arms.\

Pushing.\

Patting.\

Allowing a greater amount of the body to be used for touch.\

The influence of physical attractiveness on social judgements.\

Attractive people were consistently rated more positively.\

The tendency to assume attractive people possess other positive characteristics.\

Brief observations of people's behaviour used to form judgements about their character.\

How people form judgements about others from brief behavioural observations.\

People often made similar judgements that corresponded somewhat with supervisors' assessments.\

Personality judgements based on brief recordings of children's behaviour.\

Thin-slice judgements of children's personalities were often more accurate than chance.\

People form judgements from brief behavioural observations that can be somewhat accurate.\

Using and interpreting behaviour to communicate emotions across cultures.\

Yes, even without having seen non-verbal expressions.\

Yes, particularly anger.\

Ekman and Friesen.\

Japanese and American students' emotional expressions.\

Both groups displayed negative emotions.\

Culturally learned expectations about when and how emotions should be expressed.\

Yes, they can differ across demographic groups.\

Cross-cultural recognition of emotional vocalisations.\

English speakers and Himba participants from Namibia.\

Negative emotional vocalisations could be recognised across cultures.\

Positive emotions were communicated through more culture-specific vocalisations.\

Cross-cultural differences in eye gaze during thinking.\

They tended to look upward when thinking.\

They tended to look downward when thinking.\

Core emotions are recognised across cultures, but display rules differ.\

Other non-verbal communication behaviours.\

Gender stereotypes about how men and women communicate.\

The belief that women talk more than men.\

Gender expectations about interpersonal communication.\

Participants expected women to interact at closer distances.\

Participants expected men to interrupt more.\

Perceptions of gender differences in language use.\

The influence of gender stereotypes on how people adjust their communication behaviour.\

They communicated more masculinely, using greater directness and fewer hesitations.\

They were perceived as less warm and likeable.\

They were less likely to elicit compliance.\

Talkativeness, affiliative speech, and assertive speech.\

General communicative activity, including talking frequency, duration, word count, and vocabulary.\

Speech used to establish or maintain connections with others.\

Asking questions, praising, and agreeing.\

Speech used to influence others through directives, suggestions, and disagreement.\

Talkativeness.\

General measures and responsiveness.\

Elaborating on another person's comment.\

No.\

General measures and directive language.\

All-boy groups and conversations with strangers.\

No.\

Small and highly specific.\

No, they are often too small and specific to generalise.\

Yes, some traits can reverse at different developmental stages.\

Men prefer solutions and advice, while women prefer feeling heard and cherished.\

Gender differences in verbal ability through meta-analysis.\

165.\

Women showed a small advantage in linguistic skills.\

It was very small and had little practical significance.\

Men and women communicate differently because they are socialised and pressured differently.\

Gender differences partly arise from biological or evolutionary roles.\

The theory that gender differences develop through different social roles, expectations, and reinforcement.\

Eagly (1987).\

Men and women take on different jobs and divisions of labour.\

Through modelling, rewards, punishments, and social expectations.\

They are rewarded for acting in socially expected ways.\

Communal and socially oriented behaviour is often rewarded.\

Different toys and different expectations.\

Some verbal abilities may have biological or inherited influences.\

Potential biological and evolutionary roots of gender differences.\

Large twin studies have demonstrated partial heritability.\

Traits people say they want in a potential romantic partner.\

Asking people to rate or rank the importance of partner characteristics.\

Kindness, agreeableness, social skills, and communication ability.\

The characteristics of people we actually choose rather than those we claim to prefer.\

Using dating profiles, speed dating, and observing actual choices.\

What people say they want may differ from whom they actually choose.\

It influences how people interpret another person's personality and desirability.\

It can attract potential mates and deter romantic rivals.\

Confidence can be confused with arrogance.\

The relationship between confidence and romantic desirability.\

Confidence was correlated with arrogance, which reduced attractiveness.\

Displaying confidence without arrogance.\

Deter them.\

People may communicate conformity or uniqueness to appear attractive.\

Women tend to emphasise conformity, while men tend to stand out.\

Preferences for conformity and non-conformity in romantic partners.\

Dating profiles describing potential partners as conformist or non-conformist.\

Both men and women preferred people who communicated non-conformity.\

Men rated non-conforming women as more attractive.\

No, similar results were found in India.\

A balance of easy-going conformity and exciting non-conformity.\

Through behaviour and verbal expression.\

Whether people preferred profiles communicating high or low intelligence.\

People preferred potential mates who communicated higher intelligence.\

Kindness.\

Heterosexual women's responses to altruism.\

Women placed high value on altruism.\

It communicates attraction and encourages connection.\

Showing interest in everyone can be unattractive.\

People with different characteristics are drawn to one another.\

Couples are often similar across many characteristics.\

Good communication.\

Nickola Overall.\

Conflicting goals, motives, and preferences.\

Direct opposition, indirect opposition, indirect cooperation, and direct cooperation.\

Directly criticising or challenging a partner.\

Relatively effective.\

Using strategies such as inducing guilt to oppose a partner.\

Criticising a partner indirectly rather than openly.\

Relatively ineffective.\

Openly discussing a problem together.\

Direct cooperation.\

LGBTQ+ relationships are under-researched.\

Additional factors involved in couple communication.\

They openly discuss issues.\

Greater sexual satisfaction, relationship satisfaction, and everyday agreement.\

It can promote bonding hormones such as oxytocin.\

How positively or negatively people feel about themselves generally.\

How positively or negatively people feel about themselves in the sexual domain.\