Communication Models
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1
What is a communication model?
A representation of an idea used to describe communication phenomena.\
2
What are the four main traditional models of communication?
Linear, interactional, transactional, and Westley and Maclean's models.\
3
What does the linear model of communication propose?
A sender communicates a message to a receiver through a channe;
4
What can distort a message in the linear communication model?
Environmental noise.\
5
What is a strength of the linear communication model?
It explains one-way communication effectively.\
6
What is a limitation of the linear communication model?
It does not explain complex, face-to-face communication well.\
7
What does the interactional model add to the linear model?
The receiver can respond by sending messages back.\
8
What does the transactional model propose?
People simultaneously act as both sender and receiver.\
9
How does the transactional model reflect real-world communication?
Communication is simultaneous, complex, and influenced by environmental noise.\
10
What does Westley and Maclean's communication model examine?
How noise, subjective interpretation, and communication channels influence messages.\
11
How can communication channels influence messages in Westley and Maclean's model?
Channels can control or change the types of messages being communicated.\
12
What is an example of a channel influencing communication?
Social media influencing the messages people receive.\
13
What does Dance's Helical Spiral Model propose?
Communication develops continuously in an ongoing spiral.\
14
What does Dance's Helical Spiral Model suggest about childhood communication?
Communication becomes more complex as children develop.\
15
How does Dance's Helical Spiral Model apply to relationships?
Communication becomes more complex as people become more familiar with one another.\
16
What is a limitation of Dance's Helical Spiral Model?
It is not particularly helpful.\
17
Who emphasised the importance of emotional intelligence for life success?
Daniel Goleman.\
18
What is emotional intelligence?
The capacity to recognise, understand, and manage emotions.\
19
How many factors are included in Goleman's (1995) emotional intelligence model?
Five.\
20
What is self-awareness in Goleman's model?
Understanding one's own emotions, strengths, and limitations.\
21
What is self-regulation in Goleman's model?
Managing one's emotions and their effects on behaviour.\
22
What is motivation in Goleman's model?
The capacity for learning and self-improvement.\
23
What is empathy in Goleman's model?
Understanding other people's emotions and reactions.\
24
What are social skills in Goleman's model?
Effectively interacting with others and maintaining relationships.\
25
Who developed a four-branch emotional intelligence model in 1999?
Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey.\
26
How many items were included in Mayer, Caruso and Salovey's emotional intelligence scale?
12 items.\
27
What are the four branches of Mayer, Caruso and Salovey's emotional intelligence model?
Perceiving, assimilating, understanding, and managing emotion.\
28
What was the hypothesis of the group-work emotional intelligence experiment?
People with higher emotional intelligence would be better communicators.\
29
What did the group-work emotional intelligence experiment conclude?
Emotionally intelligent people were more likely to be viewed as effective communicators.\
30
What was effective communication associated with in the group-work experiment?
Greater perceived group cohesion.\
31
Is emotional intelligence necessarily fixed?
No, research suggests it can change and is not always indicative of others' abilities.\
32
Who developed a measurable framework of basic social skills?
Ronald Riggio.\
33
How many broad categories of social skills did Riggio propose?
Seven.\
34
What is emotional expressivity?
The ability to spontaneously and accurately express emotions, attitudes, and interpersonal feelings.\
35
What is emotional sensitivity?
The ability to quickly decode and understand emotional communication.\
36
How is emotional sensitivity related to emotional intelligence?
It relates to empathy and emotional identification.\
37
What is emotional control?
The ability to control which emotions are displayed.\
38
What is social expressivity?
Verbal skills and the ability to engage others in interaction.\
39
What is social sensitivity?
Understanding verbal communication and appropriate behaviour in social situations.\
40
What is social control?
The ability to manage oneself in social situations and control self-presentation.\
41
What is social manipulation?
The skilful use of social skills to influence others and achieve an outcome.\
42
Are all social skills positively related to one another?
No, different social skills are not necessarily related.\
43
Do all social skills relate to the same outcomes?
No, different skills are associated with different outcomes.\
44
According to Brownell, what determines the meaning of a message?
Whatever the listener thinks it means.\
45
What are the four main barriers to effective listening?
Preoccupation, prejudgment, reactivity, and lack of motivation or effort.\
46
What is preoccupation as a listening barrier?
Being distracted by one's own thoughts or concerns.\
47
What is prejudgment as a listening barrier?
Assuming we already know what someone is going to say.\
48
What is reactivity as a listening barrier?
Emotionally reacting to the content instead of listening objectively.\
49
What is lack of motivation as a listening barrier?
Not wanting or making the effort to listen.\
50
What is pseudo-listening?
Pretending to listen without genuinely paying attention.\
51
What is monopolising?
Continually focusing the conversation on ourselves.\
52
What is selective listening?
Paying attention to only a small portion of a conversation.\
53
What is defensive listening?
Listening with hostility or expecting criticism.\
54
What is ambushing?
Listening for information that can be used to attack someone.\
55
What is literal listening?
Focusing on words while neglecting emotional tone.\
56
What is projection bias?
Assuming that other people's thoughts and feelings mirror our own.\
57
What do people incorrectly assume when experiencing projection bias?
That others think and feel the same way they do.\
58
How can projection bias affect romantic relationships?
People assume their partners feel the same way about the relationship as they do.\
59
What aspects of relationships can be affected by projection bias?
Care, supportiveness, emotional states, emotional suppression, and parenting behaviour.\
60
What happens when projection bias is positive?
It can be associated with greater relationship satisfaction and better outcomes.\
61
What happens when projection bias is negative?
It can contribute to poorer relationship outcomes.\
62
Does projection bias extend beyond romantic relationships?
Yes, it can also affect body image and body weight perceptions.\
63
What are three ways to demonstrate that you are listening?
Affirmatives, paraphrasing, and active listening.\
64
What is active listening?
Paraphrasing, asking appropriate questions, and maintaining moderate-to-high non-verbal involvement.\
65
What three responses were compared in the power of paraphrasing experiment?
Simple acknowledgement, advice, and active listening.\
66
What is rewarding and reinforcing in communication?
Showing engagement through verbal or non-verbal responses.\
67
What makes praise effective?
It should be appropriate and genuine.\
68
What are the two main forms of reinforcement in communication?
Verbal and non-verbal reinforcement.\
69
What is a closed question?
A question that elicits a single piece of information.\
70
What is an open question?
A question that encourages elaboration and greater connection.\
71
What are three forms of reflecting in communication?
Paraphrasing, repeating, and reflecting on information.\
72
What is self-disclosure?
Sharing personal information, thoughts, or feelings with another person.\
73
What is a potential limitation of self-disclosure?
Oversharing personal information with strangers.\
74
What is the norm of reciprocity?
The social expectation that people return actions, favours, or treatment they receive.\
75
Who is associated with the norm of reciprocity?
Alvin Gouldner.\
76
What is a social norm?
An expectation about appropriate conduct for individuals and groups.\
77
What does the norm of reciprocity encourage?
A cycle of mutual helping and care.\
78
How can reciprocity contribute to conflict?
Negative behaviour can be reciprocated, creating escalating conflict.\
79
What is a conflict spiral?
A cycle in which threats and punishment are repeatedly returned and intensified.\
80
What did Gouldner suggest about negative reciprocity?
Harmful behaviour can be reciprocated just like helpful behaviour.\
81
What did Younds (1986) investigate?
Reciprocity involving threats and punishment during conflict.\
82
How did participants communicate in Younds' (1986) experiment?
By pressing buttons to make cooperative or harmful decisions.\
83
What happened when participants experienced threats and punishment in Younds' experiment?
They increased their own threatening and punishing behaviour in return.\
84
What did Paleari, Regalia, and Finchman (2010) examine?
Aggressive behaviour, avoidant behaviour, and effective conflict resolution.\
85
What is reciprocal behaviour in relationships?
Responding to another person's behaviour with similar behaviour.\
86
What did Park and Antonioni (2007) investigate?
Competition, collaboration, and avoidance in relationships.\
87
What was found about conflict strategies in Park and Antonioni's (2007) study?
People's competitive and avoidant strategies were associated with similar strategies reported by roommates and friends.\
88
What does research suggest about reciprocity in relationships?
Reciprocity is a strong influence on interpersonal behaviour.\
89
Why can criticism be difficult to receive?
It can hurt and threaten a person's face.\
90
What did Albert (1989) investigate?
How couples respond to criticism.\
91
How many couples were interviewed in Albert's (1989) study?
53 couples.\
92
What are four ways people dodge criticism?
Justifying, denying, countercomplaining, and passing.\
93
What is justifying criticism?
Providing reasons to defend the criticised behaviour.\
94
What is denying criticism?
Rejecting or refusing to accept the criticism.\
95
What is countercomplaining?
Responding to criticism by raising a complaint against the critic.\
96
What is passing criticism?
Avoiding or deflecting the criticism.\
97
What is a healthy response to criticism?
Acknowledging the criticism, agreeing where appropriate, apologising, or planning to improve.\
98
How do happy and well-adjusted couples respond to criticism?
They agree with one another more often.\
99
Why is criticism inherently threatening?
It implies something is wrong with the person, their behaviour, or the relationship.\
100
Can criticism still hurt when accompanied by positive cues?
Yes.\
101
What are I-statements?
Statements that communicate personal feelings and perspectives without directly blaming another person.\
102
Why are I-statements generally more effective than you-statements?
They reduce defensiveness and make people more likely to listen.\
103
How can you replace "You never listen" with an I-statement?
"I'm not feeling heard or understood at the moment."\
104
Who investigated I-statements in 1992?
Kusubany.\
105
What did Kusubany (1992) find about I-statements?
Students reported less anger, defiance, and alienation than when reading you-statements.\
106
How did I-statements affect students' responses?
They felt more sympathetic, caring, and supported.\
107
What did Simmons et al. (2005) emphasise when communicating criticism?
Taking time to recognise the other person's perspective.\
108
What does perspective-taking involve when delivering criticism?
Considering how defensive the target might feel.\
109
What did Rogers and colleagues investigate regarding I- and you-language?
How different communication perspectives influence defensiveness.\
110
Why can repositioning statements be effective?
It helps people consider their own and the other person's perspective.\
111
What does "face" mean in interpersonal communication?
A person's sense of morality, authority, honour, and social identity.\
112
What is a face threat?
Communication that threatens someone's dignity, identity, or social standing.\
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What is a positive face threat?
A threat to someone's desire to be accepted, respected, and valued.\
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What aspects of identity can positive face threats damage?
Dignity, honour, pride, and relationship value.\
115
What is relationship face?
The desire for a relationship to be strong and equally valued by both people.\
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What is a negative face threat?
A threat that exposes someone to judgement or restricts their freedom of choice.\
117
What did Cupach and Carson (2002) investigate?
The relationship between criticism, face threats, and relationship outcomes.\
118
What emotions can result from face-threatening criticism?
Anger, embarrassment, and anxiety.\
119
What relationship consequences can face-threatening criticism produce?
Relationship damage.\
120
What are relational complaints?
Criticism about something happening within the relationship.\
121
What are behavioural complaints?
Criticism about a specific action or behaviour that someone should change.\
122
What is criticism of personal characteristics?
Criticism directed at who someone is as a person.\
123
What should people avoid criticising according to Cupach and Carson?
Fundamental personal traits or characteristics.\
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What should criticism focus on instead of personality?
Specific behaviours.\
125
Where should sensitive criticism generally be delivered?
Privately.\
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What two features influence how criticism is received?
Tone and clarity.\
127
How do well-adjusted couples typically criticise one another?
They focus on specific behavioural problems rather than broad personal criticisms.\
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What two additional factors should be considered before delivering criticism?
Authority and motive.\
129
What should you consider about authority before criticising someone?
Whether you are qualified or have relevant experience to criticise them.\
130
What should you consider about motive before criticising someone?
Whether the criticism is necessary and intended to benefit the other person.\
131
What are the five key principles for delivering effective criticism?
Use I-statements, consider perspectives, criticise behaviour, communicate privately and fairly, and monitor tone.\
132
What is an independent self-construal?
Viewing oneself as separate and distinct from others.\
133
What cultural orientation is associated with independent self-construal?
Western cultures.\
134
What does independent self-construal emphasise?
Individualism, autonomy, and personal uniqueness.\
135
What is an interdependent self-construal?
Viewing oneself in relation to social relationships and context.\
136
What cultural orientation is associated with interdependent self-construal?
Eastern cultures.\
137
What does interdependent self-construal emphasise?
Collectivism, relationships, and social harmony.\
138
What communication styles are generally valued in independent cultures?
Directness, self-expression, and achieving individual goals.\
139
What communication styles are generally valued in interdependent cultures?
Indirect communication, tolerance, forgiveness, and social harmony.\
140
What did Chen et al. (2009) investigate?
Cultural differences between Americans and Chinese people in responding to poor behaviour.\
141
What did Takeuchi et al. (2001) investigate?
How Americans and Japanese people respond to incorrect directions from different people.\
142
What was varied in Takeuchi et al.'s (2001) study?
Whether incorrect directions came from a fellow student or an art teacher.\
143
What did Takeuchi et al. (2001) find about responding to teachers?
Cultural differences emerged in responses intended to save the teacher's face.\
144
What is rhetorical reflection?
Being considerate of making others uncomfortable and avoiding conflict.\
145
What is an example of rhetorical reflection?
Avoiding someone rather than risking saying something hurtful.\
146
What is the noble self?
A tendency to speak directly and stand by one's opinions.\
147
What does the noble self emphasise?
Directness and not backing down.\
148
Why is understanding cultural differences important in communication?
Rules of appropriate behaviour differ across cultures.\
149
What did Hess (1965) investigate?
The relationship between pupil dilation and liking.\
150
What did Hess (1965) find about pupil dilation?
Pupils dilated when people viewed things they liked.\
151
What else can cause pupil dilation?
Shock, food, and attraction.\
152
What did Kret and De Dreu (2019) investigate?
Pupil dilation and trust during an investment task.\
153
What role did participants play in Kret and De Dreu's (2019) study?
Investors deciding whether to invest real money with a partner.\
154
What did James (1932) identify as four communicative categories of posture?
Approach, withdrawal, expansion, and contraction.\
155
What is approach posture?
An attentive posture characterised by leaning forward.\
156
What is withdrawal posture?
Drawing back or moving away.\
157
What is expansion posture?
An upright or backward-leaning posture associated with pride, arrogance, or disdain.\
158
What is contraction posture?
A drooping posture associated with depression or feeling downcast.\
159
Which body areas communicate much of the meaning of posture?
The head and trunk.\
160
How are people with closed-arm postures often perceived?
Cold, shy, passive, or rejecting.\
161
What did Gurney et al. (2017) investigate?
The relationship between posture and perceptions of competence.\
162
How were people in strong or neutral poses rated in Gurney et al.'s (2017) study?
More confident, approachable, professional, and better paid.\
163
What is posture mimicry?
Automatically copying the non-verbal posture of people we interact with.\
164
What are some communicative functions of touch?
Expressing affection, unity, and other emotions.\
165
What did Van Anders et al. (2010) investigate?
Touch, cuddling, and affection in romantic relationships.\
166
What was associated with the quantity and quality of cuddling in Van Anders et al. (2010)?
Relationship strength and indicators such as sexual attractiveness and frequency.\
167
What did Takeuchi et al. (2010) investigate?
Affectionate touch between children and parents.\
168
What was associated with childhood affectionate touch in Takeuchi et al. (2010)?
Children's attachment to affectionate parents.\
169
What did Takeuchi et al. (2010) note about depressed adults?
They were less likely to remember childhood affectionate touch.\
170
What hormone is associated with affectionate touch and bonding?
Oxytocin.\
171
When can oxytocin be released?
During cradling, breastfeeding, hugging, and sexual activity.\
172
What did Hertenstein et al. (2006) investigate?
Whether people can communicate emotions through touch alone.\
173
What is an encoder in Hertenstein et al.'s (2006) experiment?
A participant assigned to communicate an emotion through touch.\
174
What is a decoder in Hertenstein et al.'s (2006) experiment?
A participant assigned to identify the emotion communicated through touch.\
175
How did encoders communicate emotions in Hertenstein et al.'s (2006) study?
By touching the decoder's hand or arm.\
176
What did Hertenstein et al. (2006) find about emotional communication through touch?
People were relatively accurate at identifying emotions.\
177
How was love communicated through touch in Hertenstein et al. (2006)?
Stroking and interlocking fingers.\
178
How was anger communicated through touch in Hertenstein et al. (2006)?
Hitting and squeezing.\
179
How was fear communicated through touch in Hertenstein et al. (2006)?
Trembling.\
180
How was happiness communicated through touch in Hertenstein et al. (2006)?
Swinging or shaking arms.\
181
How was disgust communicated through touch in Hertenstein et al. (2006)?
Pushing.\
182
How was sympathy communicated through touch in Hertenstein et al. (2006)?
Patting.\
183
What increased emotion-recognition accuracy in Hertenstein et al.'s (2006) experiment?
Allowing a greater amount of the body to be used for touch.\
184
What did Dion et al. (1972) investigate?
The influence of physical attractiveness on social judgements.\
185
How were attractive and unattractive people rated in Dion et al.'s (1972) study?
Attractive people were consistently rated more positively.\
186
What is the attractiveness halo effect?
The tendency to assume attractive people possess other positive characteristics.\
187
What are thin slices of behaviour?
Brief observations of people's behaviour used to form judgements about their character.\
188
What did Ambady et al. (2006) investigate?
How people form judgements about others from brief behavioural observations.\
189
What did Ambady et al. (2006) find about thin-slice judgements?
People often made similar judgements that corresponded somewhat with supervisors' assessments.\
190
What did Tackett et al. (2016) investigate?
Personality judgements based on brief recordings of children's behaviour.\
191
What did Tackett et al. (2016) find?
Thin-slice judgements of children's personalities were often more accurate than chance.\
192
What is the main conclusion of thin-slice research?
People form judgements from brief behavioural observations that can be somewhat accurate.\
193
What does cross-cultural non-verbal communication involve?
Using and interpreting behaviour to communicate emotions across cultures.\
194
Do blind children display non-verbal emotional behaviours?
Yes, even without having seen non-verbal expressions.\
195
Do some animals display basic emotions similarly to humans?
Yes, particularly anger.\
196
Who investigated cultural display rules in 1969?
Ekman and Friesen.\
197
What did Ekman and Friesen (1969) compare?
Japanese and American students' emotional expressions.\
198
What happened when Japanese and American students watched a stressful film alone?
Both groups displayed negative emotions.\
199
What are cultural display rules?
Culturally learned expectations about when and how emotions should be expressed.\
200
Do emotional display rules vary within cultures?
Yes, they can differ across demographic groups.\
201
What did Sauter et al. (2010) investigate?
Cross-cultural recognition of emotional vocalisations.\
202
Which populations were compared by Sauter et al. (2010)?
English speakers and Himba participants from Namibia.\
203
What did Sauter et al. (2010) find about negative emotions?
Negative emotional vocalisations could be recognised across cultures.\
204
What did Sauter et al. (2010) find about positive emotions?
Positive emotions were communicated through more culture-specific vocalisations.\
205
What did McCarthy et al. (2006) investigate?
Cross-cultural differences in eye gaze during thinking.\
206
What did McCarthy et al. (2006) find about Canadian and Trinidadian participants?
They tended to look upward when thinking.\
207
What did McCarthy et al. (2006) find about Japanese participants?
They tended to look downward when thinking.\
208
What is the overall conclusion about cross-cultural emotional expression?
Core emotions are recognised across cultures, but display rules differ.\
209
What else can differ across cultures besides facial expressions?
Other non-verbal communication behaviours.\
210
What influences perceptions of gender differences in communication?
Gender stereotypes about how men and women communicate.\
211
What stereotype about women's communication can influence perceptions?
The belief that women talk more than men.\
212
What did Brandon and Hall (1990) investigate?
Gender expectations about interpersonal communication.\
213
What did Brandon and Hall (1990) find about expected interaction distance?
Participants expected women to interact at closer distances.\
214
What did Brandon and Hall (1990) find about interruptions?
Participants expected men to interrupt more.\
215
What did Haas (1979) investigate?
Perceptions of gender differences in language use.\
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What is stereotype threat in communication?
The influence of gender stereotypes on how people adjust their communication behaviour.\
217
How did women respond to stereotypical information about communication in one study?
They communicated more masculinely, using greater directness and fewer hesitations.\
218
How did masculine communication styles affect women's perceived warmth?
They were perceived as less warm and likeable.\
219
How did masculine communication styles affect women's ability to elicit compliance?
They were less likely to elicit compliance.\
220
What are the three aspects of childhood communication used to study gender differences?
Talkativeness, affiliative speech, and assertive speech.\
221
What is talkativeness?
General communicative activity, including talking frequency, duration, word count, and vocabulary.\
222
What is affiliative speech?
Speech used to establish or maintain connections with others.\
223
What are examples of affiliative speech?
Asking questions, praising, and agreeing.\
224
What is assertive speech?
Speech used to influence others through directives, suggestions, and disagreement.\
225
Where were gender differences in childhood communication largest?
Talkativeness.\
226
What aspects of talkativeness showed gender differences?
General measures and responsiveness.\
227
What is responsiveness in communication?
Elaborating on another person's comment.\
228
Were gender differences found in praise, agreement, and acknowledgement?
No.\
229
What aspects of assertive speech showed gender differences?
General measures and directive language.\
230
In what situations did boys show more assertive speech?
All-boy groups and conversations with strangers.\
231
Were gender differences found in negative statements or giving information?
No.\
232
How large were overall childhood gender differences in communication?
Small and highly specific.\
233
Do childhood gender differences necessarily apply to everyday adult communication?
No, they are often too small and specific to generalise.\
234
Can gender differences in communication change during development?
Yes, some traits can reverse at different developmental stages.\
235
What does the popular Gray book perspective suggest about men and women in communication?
Men prefer solutions and advice, while women prefer feeling heard and cherished.\
236
What did Hyde and Linn (1988) investigate?
Gender differences in verbal ability through meta-analysis.\
237
How many differences in verbal ability did Hyde and Linn (1988) examine?
165.\
238
What did Hyde and Linn (1988) find?
Women showed a small advantage in linguistic skills.\
239
What was the real-world significance of the verbal ability difference found by Hyde and Linn?
It was very small and had little practical significance.\
240
What is the nurture perspective on gender differences?
Men and women communicate differently because they are socialised and pressured differently.\
241
What is the nature perspective on gender differences?
Gender differences partly arise from biological or evolutionary roles.\
242
What is social role theory?
The theory that gender differences develop through different social roles, expectations, and reinforcement.\
243
Who is associated with social role theory in the notes?
Eagly (1987).\
244
What does social role theory propose about gender roles?
Men and women take on different jobs and divisions of labour.\
245
How are gender roles reinforced according to social role theory?
Through modelling, rewards, punishments, and social expectations.\
246
How are people encouraged to behave according to gender stereotypes?
They are rewarded for acting in socially expected ways.\
247
How does socialisation influence women's communication?
Communal and socially oriented behaviour is often rewarded.\
248
What are examples of childhood gender socialisation?
Different toys and different expectations.\
249
What does the evolutionary perspective suggest about verbal ability?
Some verbal abilities may have biological or inherited influences.\
250
What did Green and Semple discuss?
Potential biological and evolutionary roots of gender differences.\
251
What evidence suggests verbal ability has a genetic component?
Large twin studies have demonstrated partial heritability.\
252
What are stated preferences in mate selection?
Traits people say they want in a potential romantic partner.\
253
How are stated preferences measured?
Asking people to rate or rank the importance of partner characteristics.\
254
What are examples of stated mate preferences?
Kindness, agreeableness, social skills, and communication ability.\
255
What are revealed preferences in mate selection?
The characteristics of people we actually choose rather than those we claim to prefer.\
256
How can revealed preferences be measured?
Using dating profiles, speed dating, and observing actual choices.\
257
Why might stated and revealed preferences differ?
What people say they want may differ from whom they actually choose.\
258
Why is confidence important during early romantic acquaintanceship?
It influences how people interpret another person's personality and desirability.\
259
How can communicated confidence influence mate attraction?
It can attract potential mates and deter romantic rivals.\
260
What is a limitation of confidence in romantic attraction?
Confidence can be confused with arrogance.\
261
What did Murphy et al. (2015) investigate?
The relationship between confidence and romantic desirability.\
262
What did Murphy et al. (2015) find about confidence and arrogance?
Confidence was correlated with arrogance, which reduced attractiveness.\
263
What makes confidence attractive according to the Murphy et al. research?
Displaying confidence without arrogance.\
264
What can communicated confidence do to romantic rivals?
Deter them.\
265
How does social role theory relate to conformity in mate attraction?
People may communicate conformity or uniqueness to appear attractive.\
266
How do women and men tend to present conformity in mate selection according to the notes?
Women tend to emphasise conformity, while men tend to stand out.\
267
What did Hornsey et al. investigate in 2015?
Preferences for conformity and non-conformity in romantic partners.\
268
What did participants read in Hornsey et al.'s study?
Dating profiles describing potential partners as conformist or non-conformist.\
269
What did Hornsey et al. (2015) find?
Both men and women preferred people who communicated non-conformity.\
270
What did another study find about men's preferences for women?
Men rated non-conforming women as more attractive.\
271
Were preferences for non-conformity limited to Western populations?
No, similar results were found in India.\
272
What combination of conformity traits may be attractive?
A balance of easy-going conformity and exciting non-conformity.\
273
How is intelligence communicated during mate selection?
Through behaviour and verbal expression.\
274
What did the intelligence experiment in mate selection investigate?
Whether people preferred profiles communicating high or low intelligence.\
275
What did the intelligence experiment find?
People preferred potential mates who communicated higher intelligence.\
276
What trait was rated as especially important in mate selection?
Kindness.\
277
What did Farrelly et al. (2016) investigate?
Heterosexual women's responses to altruism.\
278
What did Farrelly et al. (2016) find?
Women placed high value on altruism.\
279
Why is displaying interest useful in romantic attraction?
It communicates attraction and encourages connection.\
280
What is a disadvantage of indiscriminate interest?
Showing interest in everyone can be unattractive.\
281
What does the phrase "opposites attract" suggest?
People with different characteristics are drawn to one another.\
282
What does research suggest about similarity in couples?
Couples are often similar across many characteristics.\
283
What is a central feature of successful established relationships?
Good communication.\
284
Who investigated communication strategies couples use during conflict?
Nickola Overall.\
285
What can create stress in relationships according to Overall?
Conflicting goals, motives, and preferences.\
286
What are the four communication strategies couples use during conflict?
Direct opposition, indirect opposition, indirect cooperation, and direct cooperation.\
287
What is direct opposition in relationship conflict?
Directly criticising or challenging a partner.\
288
How was direct opposition rated in Overall's research?
Relatively effective.\
289
What is indirect opposition?
Using strategies such as inducing guilt to oppose a partner.\
290
What is indirect cooperation?
Criticising a partner indirectly rather than openly.\
291
How effective was indirect cooperation?
Relatively ineffective.\
292
What is direct cooperation?
Openly discussing a problem together.\
293
Which conflict communication strategy was considered best?
Direct cooperation.\
294
What limitation exists in research on relationship communication?
LGBTQ+ relationships are under-researched.\
295
What did Baker and Halford (2020) discuss?
Additional factors involved in couple communication.\
296
How do securely attached couples tend to communicate?
They openly discuss issues.\
297
What are the benefits of openly communicating about sex?
Greater sexual satisfaction, relationship satisfaction, and everyday agreement.\
298
How can sexual communication strengthen relationships?
It can promote bonding hormones such as oxytocin.\
299
What is global self-esteem?
How positively or negatively people feel about themselves generally.\
300
What is sexual self-esteem?
How positively or negatively people feel about themselves in the sexual domain.\
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