Interactive Psychology

When psychologists observe the behaviour of animals or people in their normal environments without interfering.

When psychologists measure their variable of interest by observing and recording what people are doing.

An observational research method where researchers study one or two individuals in depth.

When researchers measure two or more variables to understand the relationship between them.

To represent correlation.

A relationship where values go from low to high.

A relationship where values go from high to low.

When a third variable affects both variables, offering another reason for their connection.

How well an experiment shows that one thing caused another, without other factors influencing the outcome.

How two variables change together in a predictable way.

The requirement that the cause must happen before the effect to show a cause-and-effect relationship.

A study in which one variable is manipulated and the other is measured, providing evidence of causality.

The manipulated variable in an experiment.

The measured variable in an experiment.

A random method used to decide which participants will receive each level of the independent variable.

A group or condition in which the proposed cause is present.

A group or condition in which the proposed cause is not present.

When participants believe they are receiving a real treatment but receive something inactive instead.

A method for selecting participants for a study without bias.

An assessment of how accurately the measurements capture the variables of interest.

The degree to which study results can be generalized to the population of interest.

An alternative explanation for a relationship between two variables.

A study that measures only one variable.

A study comparing two variables that are not manipulated.

Statistics that describe the characteristics of a batch of scores.

The average of a group of scores.

The middlemost score.

The most common score.

The extent to which scores in a batch differ from each other.

A descriptive statistic that calculates how much scores vary around the mean.

An estimate of the strength of the relationship between two variables.

The correlation coefficient measuring the strength and direction of a relationship.

Cohen's d, measuring the effect size or difference between two groups.

estimate whether a pattern of results represents a true relationship or difference in the population.

A process that estimates whether study results represent the population or occurred by chance.

The process of averaging the results of multiple studies to estimate effect size.

A statistically significant finding that does not reflect a real effect.

The practice of sharing data, hypotheses, and materials freely to allow for collaboration and verification.

Respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.

The scientific method process in which scientists collect data to confirm or disconfirm a theory.

A set of propositions explaining how and why people act, think, or feel.

A prediction about what will happen based on a theory.

Conducting a study more than once to obtain the same basic results.

A periodical containing peer-reviewed articles written for a scholarly audience.

Something that varies from person to person or situation to situation.

The specific way of measuring or manipulating an abstract variable in a study.

A method of selecting participants for a study without bias.

-because we are overconfident in our ideas
-because we focus on instances that match what we think and fail to consider instances that disconfirm our beliefs.

because in real life we see only one version of a situation rather than all possible combinations of events.

p-value helps determine whether the results of a study are statistically significant.

A low p-value (typically less than 0.05) suggests that the results are unlikely to have occurred by chance, meaning the findings are statistically significant.

A high p-value suggests that the results could have happened by chance, meaning there may not be a real effect.

Respect for persons: Treat individuals with dignity and respect, ensuring informed consent and protecting their autonomy.
Beneficence: Maximize benefits and minimize harm to participants, prioritizing their well-being.
Justice: Ensure fairness in the distribution of research benefits and risks, meaning all participants should be treated equally.

Replacement: Use alternatives to animals when possible, such as computer models or cell cultures.
Reduction: Minimize the number of animals used in research by improving study designs to gather data more efficiently.
Refinement: Improve the methods used in research to reduce pain, stress, or suffering for the animals involved.

Estimates of the strength of the relationship between two variables.

R statistic: refers to the correlation coefficient, which measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Refers to Cohen's 'D', which measures the effect size or the difference between two groups. It shows how much two groups differ in terms of a standard deviation.

1: What am I being asked to believe

2: what kind of evidence is there?

3: How strong is the result?

4: Are they making a causal claim?

5: Has the study been replicated?

“What you lose when you fall into a deep sleep at night and what you gain when you wake up in the morning.”

Yes, memory can be unreliable.

Psychological, biological, social, and cultural factors interact to influence behaviour and mental processes.

Human behaviour is shaped by conscious understanding and unconscious processes.

Typical functioning and disruptions to typical functioning

Ethical principles guide psychology research and practice.

Psychology relies on empirical evidence and adapts as new data develop.

Psychology seeks to identify which aspects of behaviour are universal to all people and which aspects vary across individuals and groups.

The evolutionary perspective identifies aspects of behaviour that are the result of evolutionary adaptations.

The cultural perspective investigates how cultural context affects people’s thoughts and preferences.

The cognitive perspective studies the mental processes that underlie perception, thought, learning, memory, language, and creativity.

The emotional perspective examines how the human capacity to feel, express, and perceive emotions plays an important role in decision making, behaviour, and social relationships.

The biological-neuroscience perspective studies the biological underpinnings of how we think, act, and behave.

The developmental perspective examines how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally as they age.

The personality perspective seeks to understand aspects of behaviour that are relatively stable over time and situation.

The social perspective considers how immediate social contexts influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.

The clinical perspective focuses on the causes and treatments of psychological disorders, with the goal of improving human well-being, daily functioning, and social relationships.

W.E.I.R.D. samples refer to people from Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic backgrounds.

People in Western cultures see themselves as independent.

People in Eastern cultures are more likely to define themselves by their relationships with others.

nonhuman animals.

Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out, pay attention to, and believe only evidence that supports what we already think we know.

The overconfidence effect is the tendency to be overly sure of what we know, making us unreasonably confident.

Psychology was born in Western Europe.

The scientific branch of psychology took root in universities.

experimental studies of perception, thought, and behaviour.

Wilhelm Wundt in 1870s Germany and William James in 1880s America.

The clinical branch of psychology took root in medical examination rooms.

psychotherapy, psychiatry, and clinical practice.

Sigmund Freud.

Pseudoscience is a collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly thought to be based on valid science.

Evidence is the available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid.

Empirical means based on astute observation and accurate measurement.

The evolutionary perspective seeks to identify how humans' evolutionary past shapes certain cultural universals that all human beings share.

The cultural perspective seeks to understand how cultural context affects people’s thoughts and preferences.

Culture is the rules, values, customs, and beliefs that exist within a group of people.

No, the evolutionary and cultural perspectives are not at odds; they work together.

The cognitive perspective studies the mental processes that underlie perception, thought, learning, memory, language, and creativity.

how our capacity to feel, express, and perceive emotions plays an important role in decision making, behaviour, and social relationships.

The biological-neuroscience perspective seeks to understand the biological underpinnings of how we think, feel, and behave.

Developmental psychology studies how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally as they age.

The personality perspective focuses on aspects of behaviour that are relatively stable over time and across situations.

The social perspective studies how immediate social contexts influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.

identify the causes and treatments of psychological disorders.

Positive psychology is the study of faith, courage, and creativity.

The three components are positive emotion and pleasure, engagement with life, and living a meaningful life with good relationships and a history of accomplishment.

Metacognition is an awareness and understanding of your own thought processes.

How immediate social context as well as broader cultural environments influence us.

Fundamental motivations underlying how people interact within the social world and understand it.

A core motivation to form trusting relationships with others.

A core motivation to see ourselves and our groups in a positive light.

A core motivation to feel a sense of control over our actions and outcomes.

The tendency to treat one person as if they possess traits of another familiar person.

The tendency to overestimate how similar others' beliefs and attitudes are to our own.

Strategies people use to influence the impressions others form of them.

A strategy to be seen as competent.

A strategy to be seen as likeable.

A strategy to be seen as dominant.

A strategy to be seen as needy or weak.

Assignment of a causal explanation for an event, action, or outcome.

The tendency to assume people’s actions are due to internal dispositions rather than situational factors.

Tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to external factors.

People’s inability to accurately predict their emotional reactions to events.

An orientation toward a target stimulus composed of an affective feeling, cognitive belief, and behavioral motivation.

Automatically activated associations learned through repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Consciously reported evaluations of a person or object.

Theory of persuasion that attitudes change via central (strong argument) or peripheral (superficial cues) routes.

A sense of conflict between attitudes and actions that motivates efforts to restore consistency.

Focusing on the negative aspects of a forgone option while praising the chosen one.

Patterns of behavior, traditions, and preferences reinforced by a culture.

The process of adopting the behaviors and preferences of those around us.

Pressure to conform to others’ actions or beliefs to behave correctly or understand the world.

Pressure to conform to gain approval or avoid social sanctions.

Losing sight of one’s individuality.

Enhanced performance on easy tasks but worsened performance on difficult tasks in the presence of others.

Tendency for individuals to put less effort into tasks when working in a group.

Tendency for attitudes to become more extreme after discussion with like-minded people.

Biased decision-making in groups due to pressure to achieve consensus.

Helping those who share one’s genes to increase the odds of genetic survival.

Tendency to help those who have helped in the past or are expected to help in the future.

Inability to accurately simulate the mental suffering of another person.

Lower likelihood of helping a victim when others are present.

People's collective unawareness of each other’s true attitudes or beliefs.

Assuming others will act in a group situation, leading to inaction.

Mental representations summarizing beliefs about a group.

Negative attitude toward a group or its members.

Different treatment based on group membership.

Negative intergroup attitudes develop when groups compete for scarce resources.

More positive attitudes toward one’s ingroup than toward outgroups.

Prejudice redirected toward policies that benefit a racial or ethnic group.

Automatic negative attitudes or stereotypes about a racial group.

Unconscious negative reactions to members of racial or ethnic outgroups.

Prejudice can be reduced through friendly, cooperative interactions between different groups.

Sex differences in attraction due to different reproductive challenges faced by men and women.

Model specifying passion, intimacy, and commitment as key components of love.

Mimicking the mannerisms, accent, or speech of someone we like.

Repeated exposure to something or someone leads to familiarity, which breeds liking.

A defense mechanism where the ego redirects aggressive impulses of the id from their intended targets to more defenseless targets.

A defense mechanism where people see others as possessing a disliked trait or feeling, rather than acknowledging it in themselves.

A defense mechanism where the ego keeps unwanted feelings, thoughts, and memories below the level of consciousness.

A defense mechanism where the ego prevents the perception of a painful or threatening reality as it is occurring.

Cardinal traits are traits that dominate and shape a person’s behavior and personality.

Central traits are general dispositions that we use to describe someone, such as being outgoing or neurotic.

Secondary traits are traits that are only relevant in specific contexts, like someone being quiet but talkative with close friends.

The hypothesis that any trait useful for characterizing personality will become a word in a language.

Traits, temporary states and moods, evaluative judgments, physical characteristics and talents.

A statistical technique that groups variables into constructs based on how they correlate with one another.

Open-mindedness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

An approach that compares patterns of similarity in behavior or personality among people with different genetic relatedness.

The interaction between genetic predispositions and environmental factors that influence how a person’s traits are expressed.

A model that posits understanding and predicting behavior requires considering both personal dispositions and the situation people are in.

A theory that people’s cognitions, behaviors, and dispositions are shaped by observing and imitating the actions of others.

The concept that personality guides cognition about the world, shaping environments people choose, which then reinforce their personality.

A person’s perception of what determines their outcomes, whether internal characteristics or random external forces.

The belief that if a person can perform a behavior, a desired outcome will result.

The belief that one can successfully execute a behavior linked to a desired outcome.

A state of passive resignation where one believes they have no control over a situation.

A painful awareness of personal limitations that make outcomes uncontrollable, contrasting with the illusion of control in non-depressed individuals.

The theory that men and women develop distinct personality traits due to different reproductive challenges.

The theory that the roles people find themselves in can profoundly shape their personality.

The process of fulfilling one’s true potential by gaining a sense of personal autonomy and accepting oneself and others.

The theory that well-being and success are achieved when environments support autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

The broad network of mental representations a person has of themselves.

Characteristic ways of processing information to maintain a positive view of oneself.

The theory that people use self-esteem to assess the degree to which they are accepted by others.

The idea that self-esteem helps people cope with the awareness of their own mortality.

A tendency to have an unrealistic, self-aggrandizing view of oneself.

Defining traits in a way that feels true to oneself, often based on subjective comparisons.

The notion of the self as a bounded and stable entity, distinct from others.

The notion of the self as defined by one’s connections and relationships with others.

The study of mind and behavior

Wilhelm Wundt

Psychoanalytic approach

Behaviorism

Self-actualization

Mental processes like thinking and memory

Evolutionary psychology

Biopsychology

How individuals influence and are influenced by others

Clinical psychology

Improvement due to the belief in treatment rather than the treatment itself

Humanistic perspective

The scientific method

Study of human growth and development across the lifespan

Cognitive psychology

mental processes like perception, memory, and problem-solving

The relationship between the brain and behavior

legal and criminal justice systems

Human strengths, well-being, and factors that contribute to happiness

Personal growth, free will, and self-actualization

Abraham Maslow

A theory that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy from physiological needs to self-actualization

Behavior in workplace settings

Community Psychology

A field that compares psychological processes across different cultures

Case studies

The influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on behavior

Understanding how people learn and the best ways to teach

The psychological factors that affect performance in sports and physical activities

Ivan Pavlov

Whether genetics or environment has a greater influence on behavior

Qualitative research

A type of therapy that combines cognitive and behavioral techniques to treat mental disorders

Existential Psychology

Martin Seligman

The measurement of mental abilities, traits, and processes

A field that links behavior to biological processes, particularly in the brain

How evolutionary principles like natural selection influence human behavior

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

An early psychological approach that emphasized the purpose of consciousness and behavior

A person's belief about the extent to which they control events in their life

Learning through observation and imitation of others

A physiological reaction to perceived danger or threat

Exercise Psychology

An experiment where neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving the treatment

Howard Gardner

A type of long-term memory involving skills and procedures

Bipolar Disorder

The tendency for people to be less likely to help someone in need when others are present

The discomfort experienced when holding two conflicting thoughts or beliefs

Antisocial Personality Disorder

A study that follows the same participants over an extended period

A theory that explains how the bond between child and caregiver affects development

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

The fairness of the processes used to make decisions

The ability to use learned knowledge and experience

Instinct theory

An individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task

B.F. Skinner

The psychological factors that influence health and illness

Solomon Asch

A situation where the desire for harmony in a group leads to poor decision-making

The tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in explaining others' behavior

Bulimia Nervosa

How biological, psychological, and social factors interact to influence health