Evolution

Cumulative change in heritable characteristics of a species or change in allele frequencies of a gene

Fossil record (organisms that don't live now, sequence of organisms)
Homologous structures
Vestigial structures (tail bone, appendix)
Selective breeding of domesticated animals
Comparative embryology
Industrial melanism (peppered moths)

Bacteria and algae
Fungi and worms
Land vertebrates
Plants before animals, land plants before land animals
Plansts suitable for pollination before pollinators

Species vary across regions (natural selection)
Don't see all variations within a given region at the same time

Group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed, original definition about structure and appearance (fixed characteristics)

Siblings species have been found (seem the same, but cann't interbreed)
Some clearly different looking species do interbreed
Doesn't work for organisms that reproduce asexually or fossil species (cannot prove ability to reproduce)

Members of a population can vary greatly in their traits
Traits are inherited from parents
All species are capable of producing more offspring than environment can support

Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to have more offspring than others. This unequal ability to survive and reproduce will lead to accumulation of favorable traits of generations

Must be variation (mutation, meiosis, sexual reproduction) within gene pool of members of a species
Adaptations make an organism suited for its environment and way of life, individuals that are better adapted tend to survive and produce more offspring and pass characteristics to offspring
Increases frequency of better adapted characteristics

After introduing a new antibiotic, bacteria with resistance to it will turn up, resistent ones will reproduce and become more common in gene pool. Scientists will develop new antibiotics, eventually ending up with bacteria that are resistant to multiple antibiotics and it becomes more difficult to find antibiotics to treat people with bacterial infection
Overprescription of antibiotics, treating livestock w/antibiotics

Reproduce rapidly, exist in large numbers (increasing chance of antibiotic resistance mutation), pass resistance on through reproduction but can also pass resistance to other bacteria through plasmids

All genes and their different alleles in an interbreeding population

Allele frequencies change over time, can happen through mutation that introduces new alleles, selective pressures that favor the reproductions of one variety over another, and/or barriers to gene flow

Selective pressures work towards eliminating extremes (human birth weights and head sizes )

Intermediaries are eliminated

Population moves towards one extreme that is better adapted (giraffe's neck)

Same country
Temporal: species are separated by when they reproduce, seasonally, or daily (daytime vs nighttime organisms)
Behavioral: separation by mating rituals, songs

Different country
Geographic: separation by physical barriers (mountains, rivers, islands)

Populations must be separated long enough for their gene pools to differ enough that even if they met up again, they could no longer reproduce and produce fertile offspring
Enough time apart for genetic variation to accumulate

Large population, no mating preference, no allele mutation, no differential migration, all genotypes have equal chance of surviving and reproducing lead to p and q being same
If p and q change, could be due to evolution

Speciation due to divergence of isolated populations is gradual, as species go through a series of intermediate forms (used to be dominant theory)

Speciation can occur abruptly. Rapid change is followed by periods of stability, this helps explain why intermediate forms are often absent in fossil records
Natural disaster, major environmental change

Polyploid organisms have more than 2 sets of homologous chromosomes, can result from hydridization events or situation where chromosomes duplicate for meisosis but meiosis does not occur
Cannot mate with diploids so they become reproductively isolated (sympatric)
Most common in plants (Allium genus), can also occur in less complex animals

All cells come from divison of pre-existing cells, our cells came from one cell (zygote formed from fusion of sperm and egg from parents)

Tested spontaneous generation of cells by boiling broth in swan neck flasks (almost completely sealed) and showed that new life (bacteria, fungi) grew in open flasks

Non-living synthesis of organic molecules
Assembly of these molecules into polumers (proteins, nucleic acids)
Packaging of molecules into membranes that maintain different internal chemistry from that of surroundings
Origin of self-replicating molecules that make inheritance possible

Ran an experiment with molecules believed to have been around on early Earth (water, ammonia, methane, hydrogen) and used sparks to stimulate lightning. Within a week, the solution turned brown and carbon converted to organic molecules (15 aminos acids but no nucleic acids), showed that synthesis of organic molecules was possible in early earth conditions

Theory that chloroplasts and mitochondria began as small prokaryotes living within another cell
Larger prokaryote engulfed a smaller prokaryote, this relationship was mutually beneficial and eventually parts became a single organism

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have naked circular DNA, can make own proteins with 70S ribosomes, grow and divide like cells, have double membrane (indicative of being engulfed)