Bio 190 exam 3

Single diploid cell formed when two haploids (sperm/egg) meet

1. Cleavage - make cells through rapid division, cell cycle skips G1 and G2, 2. Gastrulation - rearrangement of cells into three major body layers: Ectoderm (skin and nerve), Mesoderm (muscle and bone), and Endoderm (digestive tract and lungs), 3. Neurulation - making the backbone, 4. Growth/organogenesis - get biggerrow tissues and organs

Ectoderm, becomes skin and nerve, Mesoderm, becomes muscle and bone, Endoderm, becomes digestive tract and lungs

An unspecialized cell that has the potential to differentiate

Cells change which genes they express through gene regulation.

The trophoblast - outer layer which becomes the placenta, The internal cell mass (ICM) - cluster of cells that becomes the embryo

Therapeutic Clone - Genetically identical stem cells, Reproductive Clone - Genetically identical organism

ES cells - Embryonic stem cells (can become any cell in embryo), iPS cells - Induced pluripotent stem cells (differentiated cell that's been reprogrammed to become similar to an ES cell, can be re differentiated or divided)

Genes can be turned off by methylation of DNA/tight packing of DNA in chromasomes (which recruits proteins that inhibit the binding of transcription factors to DNA), Genes can be turned on or off when proteins that stimulate or repress transcription (transcription factors) bind to enhancers

Enhancers are DNA sequences that activate/increase the frequency of the transcription of specific genes regardless of orientation. Transcription factors are regulatory proteins that bind to DNA promoters and either enhance or repress RNA polymerase's ability to bind to the promoter. Transcription factors can also bind to enhancer sequences to increase transcriptionend DNA to bring the enhancer closer to the gene.

Alternative splicing of introns/exons, Control longevity of RNA (length of polyA tail)

RNA interference (RNA binds to mRNA, marking it for destruction or just blocking reading)

Other proteins hold an amino acid and prevent it from foldingecoming a protein, or a necessary chemical modification is delayed

A receptor is a molecule (like a protein) where a signal molecule can bind, A ligand is a signal molecule (can be peptides, amino acids, nucleotides, dissolved gasses, steroids, lipids) that binds to a receptor.

Hydrophilic ligands bind to signal receptors in the membrane, Hydrophobic ligands bind to cytosolic signal receptors

Paracrine - Cell secretes a signal molecule that diffuses over a short distance to communicate with a nearby cell, Synaptic - An electric pulse moves rapidly through the cell, triggering the release of ligands called neurotransmitters that cross the small gap between nerve cells, Endocrine - Cell sending signals over long distances through hormones, Autocrine - Cell signaling itself, Juxtacrine - A ligand on one cell surface binds to a receptor on another.

Kinases add phosphate groups to a protein, Phosphatases remove phosphate groups from a protein

Most pharmaceuticals act on receptors by either binding and turning on pathways (activate) or turning off pathways (inhibit)

A drug that tells our cells we don't have enough energy, prompting them to produce more

During the formation of gametes, pairs of alleles split by meiosis so that each gamete (sperm or egg) only receives one allele. They rejoin at random during fertilization.

Crossing an individual multiple times to confirm its genetic makeup before performing experiments. (For example, crossing two purple flowers over and over to confirm they ALWAYS produce purple and therefore ONLY contain alleles for purple color)

A cross involving only one gene, in which the two individuals being crossed are homozygous for the given gene.

Homozygous: same allele, Heterozygous: opposite allele, Dominant: allele that shows in phenotype over recessive allele, Recessive: allele that's overshadowed in phenotype by dominant allele.

Genotype: genetic makeup of an individual, Phenotype: Characteristics of an individual.

Alleles of different genes are transmitted to gametes independently of each other (most of the time).

Same as a regular cross but alleles are attached to sex chromosomes.

A cross involving an organism that has many alleles in the population (individual diploid organism can still only hold two alleles, but the population as a whole can have many more).

Incomplete dominance: when an intermediate phenotype is seen in the heterozygous individual, Codominance: Multiple alleles can be present in the phenotype.

The iA allele puts "A" sugar on the surface of blood cells, the iB alleles puts "B" sugar on the surface of blood cells, and the i allele puts no sugar on the surface of blood cells. Type AB has both "A" and "B" sugar with a genotype of iAIB. Type A has only "A" sugar and a genotype of either iAiB or iAi.

One example of how gene expression can be impacted by the environment is a temperature sensitive allele pigmenting different areas based on body temperature.

Standard error or confidence intervals.

P</=0.05

A random, permanent change in DNA that can range from alterations in a single base pair to changes in the structure/number of chromosomes.

A change in DNA allele.

A mutation in the control region/enhancer changes the expression of a gene (time/place/frequency it shows up), while a mutation in the coding region changes the gene itself and the protien it produces as a consequence.

A mutation that shifts the reading frame, altering many amino acids.