Criminological Research Methods
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1
What is criminological research?
The systematic collection and analysis of evidence to investigate crime, offending, victimization, criminal justice institutions, and related social processes.
2
What is empirical research?
Research that uses systematically collected observations or measurements to evaluate questions or claims.
3
What is the scientific method in criminological research?
A systematic process of formulating questions, developing hypotheses, gathering evidence, analyzing results, and revising conclusions.
4
What is a research problem?
A clearly identified issue, gap in knowledge, or question that a study seeks to investigate.
5
What is a research hypothesis?
A specific, testable prediction about a relationship or difference involving variables.
6
What is a null hypothesis?
A statistical hypothesis generally stating that a specified population effect, relationship, or difference is absent or equals a defined value.
7
What is an alternative hypothesis?
A statistical hypothesis specifying an effect, relationship, or difference contrary to the null hypothesis.
8
What is an independent variable?
A variable treated as a predictor, explanatory factor, or manipulated condition in a study.
9
What is a dependent variable?
The outcome or response variable whose variation researchers seek to explain or predict.
10
What is a confounding variable?
A factor associated with both the explanatory variable and the outcome that may distort their observed relationship.
11
What is a control variable?
A variable included in an analysis or research design to account for potentially relevant alternative explanations.
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What is operationalization?
The process of defining an abstract concept in terms of observable or measurable indicators.
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What is a conceptual definition?
An explanation of what a concept means within a theoretical or research framework.
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What is an operational definition?
A statement specifying how a concept will be measured, classified, or observed in a particular study.
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What is quantitative criminological research?
Research using numerical measurements and statistical methods to examine crime-related questions.
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What is qualitative criminological research?
Research examining experiences, meanings, interactions, and social processes through methods such as interviews, observations, or document analysis.
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What is mixed-methods research?
A research approach integrating quantitative and qualitative methods within a coordinated study.
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What is descriptive research?
Research designed to characterize the distribution, frequency, or features of a phenomenon without necessarily establishing its causes.
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What is correlational research?
Research examining whether and how variables are statistically associated without necessarily establishing causation.
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What is experimental research?
Research in which investigators manipulate an intervention or condition and compare outcomes under a design intended to estimate causal effects.
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What is random assignment?
Allocating participants or units to study conditions by chance to help balance potential confounding factors.
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What is the difference between random assignment and random sampling?
Random assignment allocates units to study conditions; random sampling selects units from a population.
23
What is a randomized controlled trial?
An experimental study in which eligible units are randomly assigned to intervention and comparison conditions.
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What is a quasi-experimental design?
A design evaluating an intervention or exposure without fully randomized assignment to conditions.
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What is a cross-sectional study?
A study collecting data on participants or units at one point or during a relatively short period.
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What is a case-control study?
An observational design comparing units with an outcome to units without it and examining their prior exposures or characteristics.
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What is a cohort study?
A study following or comparing a defined group over time to investigate outcomes and associated factors.
28
What is a case study in qualitative criminology?
An intensive examination of a particular individual, organization, event, community, or justice process in its context.
29
What is ethnography?
A research approach using sustained observation and engagement to understand the practices and meanings of a social group or setting.
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What is content analysis?
A systematic method of examining communications, documents, or media to identify patterns, categories, or themes.
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What is the target population in research?
The broader group of people or units to which researchers intend their findings to apply.
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What is a sample?
A subset of a population selected for observation or analysis.
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What is probability sampling?
Sampling in which population units have known, nonzero probabilities of selection under the design.
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What is simple random sampling?
A probability method in which every possible sample of a specified size has an equal chance of selection.
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What is stratified random sampling?
A method dividing a population into defined strata and randomly selecting units within those strata.
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What is cluster sampling?
A method selecting groups or clusters of units, sometimes followed by sampling units within selected clusters.
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What is convenience sampling?
A nonprobability method selecting participants because they are readily accessible.
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What is purposive sampling?
A nonprobability method deliberately selecting participants or cases because they possess characteristics relevant to the research question.
39
What is snowball sampling?
A recruitment method in which existing participants help identify additional potential participants.
40
What is measurement reliability?
The consistency or reproducibility of measurements under specified conditions.
41
What is measurement validity?
The extent to which evidence supports the intended interpretation and use of a measurement.
42
What is internal validity in causal research?
The degree to which a study supports the conclusion that the examined intervention or exposure caused the observed outcome.
43
What is external validity?
The extent to which findings can reasonably be generalized to other populations, settings, or conditions.
44
What is informed consent in criminological research?
Voluntary agreement to participate after receiving understandable information about the study, its risks, benefits, and relevant rights.
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What is confidentiality in research?
The protection of identifiable participant information against unauthorized disclosure.
46
What is the difference between anonymity and confidentiality?
Anonymity means participants' identities are not known or linkable to the collected data; confidentiality means identifiable information is protected.
47
Scenario: A researcher tests whether a mentoring program reduces juvenile reoffending by randomly allocating eligible youths to two conditions. What research design is used?
A randomized controlled trial, assuming the comparison and procedures satisfy the experimental design.
48
Scenario: A researcher finds that neighborhoods with more police patrols have more recorded offenses. Why is a causal conclusion premature?
Patrol deployment may respond to existing crime, and reporting, detection, or other confounding factors may explain the association.
49
Scenario: An investigator interviews former gang members selected because they have detailed knowledge of recruitment practices. Which sampling method is used?
Purposive sampling.
50
Scenario: A questionnaire gives consistent scores across repeated administrations but does not measure the intended construct. What measurement problem exists?
The instrument may be reliable but lack validity.
51
Scenario: A study examines whether police officers follow ethical rules but collects only names, badge numbers, and identifiable misconduct disclosures. What ethical safeguard is especially important?
Strong confidentiality and data-protection measures, along with informed consent and appropriate research oversight.
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