Term Test 2 review notes + all lectures after

-Introduced a physical system known as vortex cosmology
-Each star was considered a sun and orbited by planets
-Descartes' cosmology argued for pluralism, suggesting each star was a sun with planets around it

-Applied Cartesian cosmology to argue for extraterrestrial existence
-"Conversations on the Plurality of the Worlds" by fontenelle drew on Descartes' cosmology and telescopic observations
-The book contained more science fiction than science
-Placed on the Catholic index of prohibited books

-written by fontanelle
-Consists of six dialogues between a marquise and a philosopher
-Planets in the solar system populated in the work, unclear views on moon inhabitants
-Fontanelle placed planets around other stars and populated comets in the narrative

-Supported Fontanelle's book
-Discovered rings of Saturn and Saturn's moon Titan ( second largest moon in solar system, synchronous rotation)
-Fundamental contributions to the physics of light
-"Other planets are not inferior in dignity to us."
-argued that ETs arent too diff from us evolution and technology wiseand they need the 5 senses for survival and atributed use of science and math to them
-Speculated about different types of waters on other planets
-Estimated the distance of other stars by comparing the brightness to Sirius, inferring planets around distant stars are not directly observable
-Did not support life on the moon
-Emphasized advanced social culture and the use of scientific instruments by extraterrestrial beings in his "Cosmotheros."

All extrasolar planets are discovered through indirect methods.
-Over 5000 extrasolar planets have been discovered using these methods.
-In both methods, planets are not observed directly, but their presence is deduced from their influence on the star's light.
-Two main indirect methods: Radial Velocity method and Transit Method.

Radial Velocity Method:
-Relies on the fact that as planets orbit stars, they cause the star to wobble.
-This wobbling creates a detectable pattern in the light received from the star.

Transit Method:
-Relies on detecting tiny changes in the brightness of a star when a planet passes in front of it.
-The planet is not seen directly, but its existence is inferred based on how it affects the light of the parent star.

Hot Jupiters:
Gas giants with orbital periods of less than 10 days.
Orbit very close to their parent stars.

Mini Neptunes:
Planets with masses larger than 10 Earths but less than the mass of Uranus or Neptune (17 Earths).

Super-Earths:
Planets with masses between 1-10 times that of Earth.
Larger than Earth but smaller than Uranus or Neptune.

-Responsible for the invention of calculus.
-Formulated three laws of motion and the universal law of gravity.
-Law of gravity used to derive the shape of planetary orbits (validated Kepler's experimental findings).
-Newton's universe was deterministic, governed by a set of laws, reducing the need for constant divine intervention.

-Newton was associated with Deism.
-Deism holds that God created the universe but does not intervene in its affairs.

-Newton believed stars were systems similar to our own sun.

-Despite his deterministic view, only four passages in Newton's writings hint at pluralism, suggesting the possibility of multiple planetary systems.

Developed theodicy - the concept that our universe is the best of all possible universes, despite the existence of evil.
Leibniz utilized pluralism to address the problem of evil.

The Problem of Evil - how evil can exist in a universe created by an omnibenevolent, omniscient, and omnipotent God.
-Theodicy s his answer the problem of evil

Leibniz's Pluralism:
Leibniz's pluralistic perspective is integral to his theodicy.
Argued that our planet is the worst of the best possible worlds, explaining the presence of evil in the context of overall cosmic perfection.

Early convert to Leibnizian philosophy.

-Wolff attempted to measure the height of Jupitarians (hypothetical inhabitants of Jupiter).
-Used the amount of light they receive on Jupiter as a basis for calculation.
-Wolff's Calculation Method:

-Wolff's calculation is based on the inverse square law for light.
-Inverse Square Law: If the distance between a planet and the sun increases by a factor of d, the light received on that planet decreases by a factor of d^2

-The amount of light received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the planet from the sun.

-Wolff argued that the square diameter of the pupil is inversely proportional to the amount of light available.
-He further argued that the size of the human eye is proportional to height.

Enlightenment - Period in Western thought and culture, spanning the mid-17th century through the 18th century.
-Characterized by revolutions in science, philosophy, society, and politics.

-Voltaire became a deist.

-Upon his return to France, Voltaire became a popularizer of Newton's ideas, contributing to the spread of scientific thought.
Belief in Extraterrestrials:

-Employed the theme of extraterrestrials in over a dozen of his books.
-Used ETs to criticize institutional religion, Leibnizian theodicy, and the politics of his time during the Enlightenment.

-Filled with pluralism, satire, and criticism of institutional religion (Catholicism) and politics.
-Micromegas is exiled on charges of heresy.
-Befriends the secretary of the Academy of Saturn.
-Micromegas and the secretary lament that their 1000 senses and 72 senses are not enough to view the full scope of the universe.
-Voltaire suggests that assumed extraterrestrial animals have 20 or 30 senses, and even that is insufficient.
-Implies some perfect beings might have infinite senses.
-Micromegas and the Saturnian mount a journey to Jupiter and then Earth.
-They justify Mars having two satellites due to its proximity to the sun.

-First to popularize Newton's deterministic universe and employ his new system of mechanics in natural theology.
-Theology - Defined as a theological system framed entirely out of religious truths learned from natural sources, such as the human mind and the phenomena of the mental and material universe.
-Bentley's belief in extraterrestrials stems from finding no purpose for the existence of stars that directly benefit humans.
-Praises God's wisdom for placing Earth at an optimal distance from the sun, ensuring it is neither too hot nor too cold.
-Provides a rough definition of the habitable (Goldilocks) zone, emphasizing the ideal distance from a star
-the modern definition of habitable zone is an annulus around a star where water can remain liquid

-More luminous stars have wider habitable zones, situated relatively far from the star.
-Less luminous stars have thinner habitable zones, located relatively close to the star.

-Stars come in a variety of masses.
-For the majority of a star's life, the more massive it is, the hotter its surface temperature.

Kepler Space Telescope:
-Launched in 2009.
-Designed to search for Earth-like planets beyond our solar system.
-Aims to identify planets within the habitable zone of their host stars.

-Also believed the Sun was inhabited
-Herschel proposed that the Sun had a cool, solid, and dark spherical interior with a layer of hot clouds floating on top.
-Suggested the outer layer had two separate layers, with the outermost glowing and the inner acting as a heat shield.
-Herschel believed sunspots were openings through which inhabitants of the Sun could observe the outside world.
-Nebulae, in Herschel's time, referred to faint patches observed in the sky.
- pluralism was Herschel's primary concern.
-Interpreted impact craters as cities.
-Herschel resolved globular clusters into individual stars in 1782.
-Globular clusters are tightly packed stars orbiting the galaxy as satellites

-Paine was a diest
-argued in 1794 that one must choose between Christianity and the idea of extraterrestrials as the two are incompatible.
-Central Christian claims, including God's incarnation in Christ, his presence on Earth, and the redemptive suffering and death, are considered irreconcilable with the Plurality of the World.
-Paine contended that the core Christian claim conflicts with the idea that there are multiple inhabited worlds beyond Earth.

-Known for blending Enlightenment ideas on extraterrestrial astronomy with evangelical sentiments, which some critics found preposterous.
-Astronomical Discourses" (1817), based on 7 sermons from 1815, was an immediate success.

-Chalmers' response to paine: Effects of Christ's redemptive action have enduring, timeless consequences that may reach remote planets.

Infidels' Objections Regarding Pluralism and Christianity:
-"Christianity designed for the single benefit of our world."
-"God's attention lavished on an insignificant field."

Chalmers' Responses:
-Infidels' claim; no Christian believes Christianity benefits only our world.
-Christians conceive God's generosity reaching from the smallest insects to the inhabitants of the most distant orbs.

-Thomas Dick's numerous wrote about pluralism even with lack of evidence
-Conclusions were primarily based on teleology.

-Dick presented a population table for all objects in the universe.
-Calculated square mileage of dry land on each object, assuming no oceans
-Average population per square mile in the solar system equated to that of England at the time (280 people).
-Bessel, in 1838, became the first to measure stellar parallax, marking a significant advancement in observational astronomy.

-John Herschel, a prominent figure in the 19th century, strongly advocated the possibility of life on the Moon and the Sun.
-Inherited both scientific instruments and ideas from his father, William Herschel.

-On August 25, 1835, the New York Sun published a series of reports, claiming to be based on the scientific account of one of Herschel's assistants, published in the Supplement to the Edinburgh Journal of Science.
-On August 31, it was reported that a mistake by Herschel's team led to the destruction of the telescope, ending the amazing observations.
-The reports were later revealed to be a hoax, known as the Great Moon Hoax.
-The reports were compiled into a pamphlet, selling over 60,000 copies.
-Majority believed the claims presented in these articles.
-The bubble burst when a reporter from the Journal of Commerce investigated and the author admitted, "Don't print it right away. I wrote it myself."
-Richard Adams Locke was revealed as the man behind the Great Moon Hoax.

-Although considered a hoax, scholarly evidence suggests it was written as a satire piece, highlighting the power of media influence and public belief in the 19th century.

-Initially endorsed the idea of extraterrestrial life.
-In 1853, Whewell changed his position, arguing against the abundance of life in the universe.
-Based his arguements in Teology
-Whewell presented a geological argument against pluralism and Pointed out that Earth was without intelligent life for the majority of its history, but it shouldn't be considered a waste of space.
-Argued that waste is common in nature, making it reconcilable with the existence of God.
-Instead of populating all planets, Whewell suggested that God may have only populated a minute portion of planets, addressing the issue of waste in the universe.

-Rare Earth Hypothesis
Argued that conditions leading to the appearance of life and the evolution of complex biological systems are rare on a planet.
Bacterial life might be common, but complex and intelligent life forms are even rarer.

-Wallace opposed the idea of the abundance of life in the universe.
-Developed an anti-pluralist argument considering the multitude of conditions required for the evolution of intelligent life.
-Believed that the simultaneous presence of all these conditions significantly decreases the chances of life.
-Wallace contended that Mars has a very thin atmosphere and much colder temperatures than claimed by Percival Lowell.
-Huge temperature variations on Mars (-150 to 35) due to the thin atmosphere.

-access to heavy elements necessary for life.
-far from steralizing radiation
-habitable zone of sun
-Earth orbits a parent star that produces the right amount of radiation in the visible part of the spectrum
-no tidal locking
-generate a magnetic field
-Earth possesses tectonic plates
-Earth has a sufficiently large moon, stabilizing the tilt of the planet's axis and ensuring a stable climate.
-The combination of these factors makes Earth an exception in terms of its potential for hosting and sustaining complex life forms.

-Proctor popularized William Whewell's ideas.
-Suggested that Jupiter, acting as a sun, provides heat and might become suitable for living beings in the future.
-Initially believed in the possibility of life on Mars.
-Later argued against the existence of life on Mars in his book "Borderland of Science."
-Proctor's argument against Martian life was based on the thin atmosphere of Mars.
-Claimed that the atmosphere on Mars is so thin that it cannot support liquid water, as water would sublimate directly from ice to gas.
-Described the process of sublimation on Mars, where ice turns directly into gas due to the thin atmosphere
-Proctor's views on extraterrestrial life evolved over time, reflecting the changing scientific understanding of celestial bodies.

-Biggest theory that life arrived on earth through meteorite
-Meteoroids are small bits of rock and metal in space
-When it enters earth's atmosphere it heats up due to friction and explodes called a meteor
-A meteoroid that survives its journey through the atmosphere is called a meteroite
-Organic compounds are a class of chemical compounds having carbon oxygen nitrogen and hydrogen
-These are the building blocks of the biomolecules such as proteins and nucelic acids
-At the time this was taken to be proof of ET life as the belief then was that organic material can only come about through the work of living organisms
-Panspermia - the idea that the seeds of life exist in the universe and travel on comets, asteroid and upon reaching a suitable niche, they give rise to complex life
-If you believe in panspermia then you must believe in the abundance of life in the universe

Believed that mars was covered in a system of canals
Believed that intelligent martian civilization had built the canals to bring water from the polar caps towards the martian equator

Opponent to idea of canals
Believed that christianity and pluralism cannot be reconciled
Believed that the canals are nothing but a trick of our eyes

No genuine potentiality of being can remain unfulfilled and the extent and abundance of creation is as vast as the possibilities of existence and commensurate with the productive capacity of a perfect and inexhaustible source (atoms or god)

if anything can go wrong it will go wrong (based on principle of plentitude)

when two competing theories make exactly the same prediction, the simpler one is better

the universe appears the same from every point and in every direction
there is nothing special about earth

the laws of physics are the same everywhere in the universe

the explanation of phenomena in terms of their purpose

-the belief is that all advanced civilizations share the same understanding of the science (recall what we mean by Science) and mathematics.

any advanced extraterrestrial civilization understands the universe using the language of mathematics.
-Numbers in the plaque are represented by a binary code
-address in the Milky Way, specified in terms of the location of a number of pulsars in our galaxy.
-At the bottom of the plaque, there is a code showing our location in the solar system. The distance of each planet from the sun is given in terms of binary numbers using the distance of mercury as the unit distance.

Risk of detection (this is to some extent calculable)
Risk of contact (this is unknown and possibly can never be known)

The first case of contactees can be traced back to the scientist turned sage and mystic, Emmanuel Swedenborg.
According to Swedenborg, the inhabitants of the moon speak with “voices like thunder” since they do not speak from “their lungs but from the Abdomen
founded the new jerusalem church

Ellen G. White, the prophetess of the Seventh Day Adventist Church also claimed contacts with extraterrestrials.
In her visions, she saw extraterrestrials who lived in worlds free of Sin.

Developed a theology that stated - ET's lived with no sins and humans were the only ones who comitted sin so christ only came to earth and to humans

-Over the course of 7-years, Helene Smith claimed that she frequently had traveled to Mars and has learned how to speak and write Martian!
-A study of Helene’s Martian language, showed that it was an infantile version of French.
-founded the seventh day adventists

The Aetherius Society was founded by George King in 1955 following his contact with aliens which he called “Cosmic Masters”, including “master Jesus” who is an extraterrestrial from Venus.

The Unarius Academy of Sciences was founded by Ernest and Ruth Norman in 1954, who claimed to have received a series of basic teachings from “infinite intelligence”, through channeling with extraterrestrials.
The Unarians were awaiting the arrival of “vehicle of light” which was expected to come in 1975, 2001 and now with no certain dates for the futures.

Unarians believe in reincarnation

Raëlism was founded by Claude Vorilohn after his alleged encounter with advance extraterrestrials who entrusted him with a message about origin of humankind.
humankind is the result of genetic engineering on the DNA of these extraterrestrials who made humankind in their “own image” and planted us here on Earth.
Immortality is achieved by serial cloning for those who are seen as morally good people.
To be initiated into Raëlism, a contract is signed in by a mortician so a piece of bone in the forehead of the convert is removed after death (known as 3rd eye) and be preserved so they can be cloned after the arrival of their creator

God is an alien:The alleged observation of UFOs has led some to interpret the stories of the old and new testament as narratives of encounters between human and aliens.
In this view God is replaced by aliens, an advanced extraterrestrial race which have created humans and have guided its evolution.
Such claims take the accounts of the Bible as narratives of guidance and the visits of the extraterrestrials who created humankind.

In his book, Chariots of the Gods? (1968), Von Daniken, suggested that various Biblical accounts are the story of ancient alien astronauts who visited the Earth.
Von Daniken hypothesized that human race was the result of a biological experiment of alien genetic engineers.

Advocates of abduction by aliens believe that abductions happen extensively but the abductees have little or no memory of such events.
The details of event is usually retrieved using hypnosis.

The use of hypnosis in retrieving or clarifying these memories make their nature questionable since this method of accessing an individual’s psyche infuses the subject with a desire to please the hypnotist. The responses thus obtained are very much inline with the expectations of the hypnotist.

Majority of abductions happen while the abductee is about to fall sleep and start with observing an intense source of light that leaves an individual blind or paralyzed.
The abduction has a dream-like character, with an out-of-body experience.
The spacecraft is disc-shaped and the examination room is circular and dome-shaped without any sharp corners.
All abductees undergo excruciating medical examination, sometimes involving dismemberment or removal of the organs.
There is a sexual aspect to all abduction narratives, usually involving removal of sperm or ova from the subject.
Many of these alien abductors appear to be after producing a hybrid race.
The majority of the accounts, describe aliens as 3-5 feet humanoids.
They have large heads, with huge almond-shaped eyes, almost non-existent nose and very thin lips.
The mouth does not move when they talk (usually speaks through telepathy) and the faces show no emotion.
Aliens wear overall seamless shiny body suits with no fasteners and can easily pass through walls and barriers
The bodily examination is followed by a spiritual examination.
Finally, the leader of the aliens enter and in the majority of the cases, there is an instant bonding between the abductee and the leader.
The abductee feels that she has known the leader her whole life and the leader mysteriously removes all the pain that is left from the medical examination.
The abductee is then left with a message to deliver. Messages can be classified into 4 types:

(1) A moral injunction message: Humans have behaved badly and must stop or they will suffer the consequences.
(2) Apocalyptic messages: A terrible catastrophe will end the history of humans
(3) Messages revealing identity and purpose of aliens:
They are here to perform genetic experiments to produce a hybrid race
They are the creators of humankind, have guided our evolution and have intervened in our history and now offering salvation (aliens replacing traditional functions of God)

Carl Jung argued that the human subconscious possesses a collection of images and thoughts (archetypes) including religious symbols.
Within a Jungian context, the abduction narratives is a product of exteriorization of some of these archetypes under stress or pressure.

Jung argues that the sexual aspect of the abduction narratives is closely related to human’s encounter with Other (dialogue with the opposite sex is our most frequent interaction with Other). The alien is the personification of the Other.

Drake’s equation provides an estimate for the number of communicating intelligent civilizations in the Galaxy.
N = R* x fplanet x ne x flife x fintel x fciv x L

N = number of transmitting civilizations in our galaxy
R* = birthrate of stars suitable for hosting life
fplanet = fraction of stars having planets
ne = number of planets per stellar system that have an enviornment favourable for life
flife = fraction of planets on which life actually evolves
fintell = fraction of inhabited worlds that have intelligent life
fciv = fraction of planets having intelligent beings that produce a civilization capable of interstellar communication
L = Lifetime over which such civilizations are “on the air”, broadcasting signals.

Using optimistic values for the first 6 terms in the equation, one ends up with one civilization per year, i.e. one civilization capable of communication is born every year.

Colonization by Humankind: Involves multi-generational journeys, deep freezing or sending human fertilized eggs which can be born and raised once the spaceship comes across a suitable environment

Colonization by Machines: The von Neumann probe is the concept of sending space probes that are capable of exploring and sending data back as well as being able to self-replicate when they encounter the required ingredients in a planetary environment.


Civilization can colonize the galaxy! It takes about 1 - 500 million years to colonize the Galaxy with a reasonable level of technology.

Any civilization can in principle colonize the galaxy in a relatively short time span!
Based on the findings of Kepler mission astronomers estimate the number of terrestrial planets in our galaxy to be couple of tens of billion.
Fermi’s Paradox: So where is everyone?

Response:
If we accept the Copernican Principle applies to biology, then we must expect that life is common in the universe.
Intelligence like ours has the capability to make progress using technology.
If intelligent life started out earlier elsewhere in the universe, then they must be technologically more advanced than us
If life and intelligence are common and have such great capability for growth, why is it that we have no evidence for the existence of another intelligent civilization

three possible responses
they exist but have not communicated - We always believe that Aliens will be contacting us. They might be thinking the same thing, waiting for us to communicate.Assuming that Aliens, if they possess the technology, are willing to contact us ignores the dependence of this assumption on the particular social structure, ethics and cultural aspects of alien societies.It might be that very advanced civilization lose interest in making contact with others.

they exist adn they are here - aliens were here and left evidence. aliens are here and are interfering with us (UFO's). they are here but they choose to remain hidden becuase we might not be ready for visitation or they do not want to contaminate our enviornment. they are watching us and studying us without us knowing (zoo hypothesis)

they do not exist (rare earth hypothesis) - This is the Rare Earth hypothesis first presented by William Whewell.In its modern form, it argues that many improbable conditions must exist simultaneously for life to start. Once life starts, the chance factor in the theory of evolution might not always produce intelligent species.

If life and intelligence are common and have such great capability for growth, why is it that we have no evidence for the existence of another intelligent civilization

Most pluralist theories are unfalsifiable, flexible and rich in explanatory power.
A scientific statement is one that could be proven wrong! In other words it must be falsifiable!
Scientific theories must be falsifiable and rely on natural causes in explaining observed phenomena!
It is only scientifically correct to state : “Life does not exist in the Universe”

when the contactee senses his/her body and consciousness separately. The body remains in one place but the consciousness is free to travel

Pulsar are stellar corpse otherwise known as rotating neutron stars that send out beams of electromagnetic radiation in precise time intervals