BIOL 111 Final Exam - TAMU

REACTANTS: CO2 + H2O
PRODUCTS: Gucose + O2

They are the reverse reaction of one another

It provides almost all of the oxygen in the environment

Plants, phytoplankton, algae, and some bacteria

They produce about 50% of the oxygen in our atmosphere

Self feeders who build complex organic molecules using substrates in their surroundings and energy from light or inorganic chemical reactions

Photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs

Sunlight

Inorganic compounds

"Other feeders" that cannot produce their own food and rely on the intake of food in the form of organic carbon substances

Yes

Yes, but only a few species

Upper and lower cuticle

Upper and lower epidermis

Mesophyll layer

Palisade and Spongy

It is stacked very closely together in order to capture light

The etxtra space helpes to facilitate gas exchange

Guard cells in the pores of the stomata

An organelle in the leaves of plants that perform photosynthesis

Mesophyll cells

It is a double membrane with the inner and outer membranes

Inner fluid filed space surrounding thylakoids within chloroplast

Third membrane that forms interconnected disk shaped structures that contain chlorophyll within the chloroplast

Stack of thylakoids in the chloroplast

Inner space of the thylakoid

Water and CO2

Light dependent reaction and Calvin Cycle

Light energy is converted to chemical energy

ATP and NADPH (NADP+ is reduced)

In the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast

In the stroma of the chloroplast

Uses ATP and NADPH (products of LDR) to make the sugar molecules G3P

700 - 400 nm

Red

Violet

It appears white, but is actually made of multiple wavelengths (colors) of light

The longer the wavelength, the weaker in energy, and the shorter the wavelength, the more energetic

Light absorbing molecules in photosynthetic organisms

They absorb specific wavelengths, and reflect the others (what we end up seeing)

Set of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment

Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b

Blue and red wavelengths

It is critical to converting light energy to chemical energy during light dependent reactions

Another type of pigment

Help capture light and protect photosystems by dissipating excess energy as heat

Violet and blue-green

Large protein complexes that collect light and transfer energy to electrons

Photosystem II and Photosystem I

Light harvesting complexes and reaction center

Pigment molecules bound to proteins funnel energy from photons of light to the reaction center?

Photosystem II

Light passes throuugh the light harvesting complexes to the reaction center where the energy from the photons excite chlorophyll a's electrons, which are then passed on to an electron acceptor to be taken to the ETC where water is split into electrons (H+ and O2) nd the electrons from the water are donated to the special chlorphyll a molecules to be excited again

Light is passed through the light harvesting complexes to the reaction center where the energy from the photons excite chlorophyll a's electrons and are then passed on to an electron acceptor to be taken to the NADP+ reductase, then the electrons from PSII are passed through the ETC and they are donated to the special chlorophyll a molecules to be excited again

2 parts

Transports e- from PSII to PSI

Transports e- from PSI to NADP reductase

NADP+ is reduced to NADPH (product)

The light independent reaction (does not need sunlight to occur)

The stroma of the chloroplast

ATP, NADPH, and CO2 used to produce the sugar G3P

Carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration

CO2 + RuBP, splits into two 3 carbon compinds (3-PGA)

ATP and NADPH convert 3-PGA molecules into one G3P

Some G3P molecules convert 3-PGA into glucose, while the other G3P is regenerated into RuBP

3 cycle throughs

The light dependent reaction, which is instantaneously reacts to convert light energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH

H2O is split and O2 is released into the atmosphere and the ETC is activated

Light independent reactions that occur quickly but not instantaneously to use ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 to G3P

Produces identitcal offspring (clones) from a single individual

Produces variable offspring from two parents

Meiosis and fertilization

The reshuffling of genetic material during meiosis

Crossing over, independent assortment, and radom fertilization

2^n (2 for each parent, and n is the # of chromosomes)

Diploid Life Cycle

Any cell in a living organism that is not a reproductive cell

Ovaries and testes

Gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote which develops into an adult organism

The number of sets of chromosomes

Diploid (2n - 2 of each chromosome from mom and dad)

During Meiosis (specifically Meiosis 1)

Fertilization

In males, spermatogenesis produces a continuous supply of sperm from puberty onward, while females, through oogenesis, produce a finite number of eggs, with the process starting before birth and continuing until menopause

Meiosis involves two cell divisions and produces four haploid gametes that are genetically unique

It is reduced

Chromosomes begin to condense and pair up with their homologous pair (like with like) and exchange part of their DNA through crossing over

Homologous chromosomes pair up and are held together in synapsis on top of each other as they exchange genetic information

Chromosomes that carry genes derrived from two different parents - the product of crossing over

46

Prophase 1

When homologous pairs line up randomly during Metaphase 1 and assort without regard to any other chromosomes or what they code for

2 haploid daughter cells

They are essentially the same, except Meiosis 2 has chromatids that are not genetically identical and result in haploid daughter cells that are different

Structural rearrangements and abnormalities in chromosome numbers can occur

The number and appearance of chromosomes based on length, banding, and centromere position

Occurs when pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatid fail to separate during meiosis

Trisomy and Monosomy

The gain of extra chromosomes due to nondisjunction (down syndrome)

The loss of chromosomes due to nondisjunction

A section of DNA is repeated on the chromosome and grows in size

A section of DNA is deleted from the chromosome and shrinks in size

Inversions and Translocations

A change in orientation of genes that causes detachment, 180% rotation, then reinsertion of that small part of DNA (normally not very noticable)

A segment of chromosome breaks off and reattaches to a different non, homologous chromosome which can have varying affects

Factors or phenomena that complicate the straightforward application of Mendel's Laws that arise from interactions between genes, chromosomes, or the environment

Spectrum of dominance, multiple alleles, pleitropy, epistasis, sex linked traits, etc.

3:1

9:3:3:1

Law of Segregation

Occurs when the phenotypes of the heterzygote and dominant homozygote are identical (Aa will present the same as AA)

Phenotypes of F1 hybrids are somewhere between the 2 parental varieties, ususally meaning there can be three phenotypes for two alleles (White and red can sometimes cause pink)

Two dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate, but distinguishable, ways (Spotted flowers)

It is very common to have genes with more than two alleles on it (each diploid organism can carry over 100 alleles) (Hair color and blood type are carried on the same gene)

Occurs when a single gene affects multiple, seemingly unrelated traits - "many influencing" (red hair color gene can also affect sun and pain tolerance)

Occurs when a single trait is controlled by multiple genes, each contributing to the phenotype in an additive or quantitive way - "many genes" (human height and hair color)

Continuous variation

When one gene masks or modified the effect of another gene at a different locus, which can modify Mendelian ratios (In order to see the pigment in labs, you must have a dominant E along with the pigment allele, or else it ends up unpigmented)

Environmental factors can affect gene expression and phenotypic outcomes (such aas diet or climate)

Traits determined by the combined effects of multiple genes and environmental factors (height, weight, Type 2 Diabetes, heart disease, depression, etc.)

A heritable feature (flower color)

A specific characteristic of an individual (purple or white color)

Basic unit of heredity passed from one generation to the next

Different versions of the same gene ( P vs p)

The physical appearance of an organism

The genetic makeup of an organism

Specific locations on a chromosome where a gene is found

A breeding experiment that examines the inheritance of a single trait or gene (only PpxPP)

A breeding experiment involving two different traits or genes where both parents are heterozygous for both traits (SSYyxSsyy)

Crosses a dominant phenotype individual with homozygous recessive individual for a given trait to determine the genotype of an organism with the dominant phenotype but unknown genotype (P_xpp)

A breeding experiment where the sex of the parents expressing a particular trait is reversed in a second cross, while the traits themselves remain the same

Traits where individuals within a population fall into distinct, separate categories with few or no intermediate forms (what Mendel studied)

Traits that exhibit a wide range of values between two extremes, with no distinct categories or clear divisions between them

The parents (who will be crossed)

The offspring of the first P generation cross

The offspring of a F1 generation cross

A characteristic that appears when only one copy of the responsible gene (allele) is present in an individual's genotype

A characteristic that is only expressed when an individual inherits two copies of the corresponding recessive allele, one from each parent

A set of truths that describe the basic principles of how traits are passed from parents to offspring

Each trait is controlled by a pair of two factors with one inherited from each parent (these factors are actually alleles)

One factor or allele in a pair masks or inhibits the expression of the other

Alleles of a gene separate into different gametes in equal number such that each gamete has only one allele (either P or p, but not both) (think like in meiosis when chromosomes separate)

Alleles for different traits assort independently of one another during gamete formation (seed color does not affect whether the pea is wrinkled or not)

Law of Independent Assortment

It causes the separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis (red and blue chromosomes split)

Separation of two alleles from the same locus during meiosis (A or a)

Assortment of one pair of homologous chromosomes does not affect assortment of another pair

Inheriting R or r does not affect the probability of affecting a Y or y - they are completely separate events

To determine what the second allele is in a dominant phenotype

"And" rule - probability that two or more independent events will occur is the product of their individual probabilities (multiply the separate probabilities together, like 1/2 x 1/2 = 1/4 for the probability of flipping heads two times)

"Or" rule - probability that any 1 or 2 or more exclusive events will occur is the sum of their individual probabilities (if two quarters are tossed what is the probability of getting a heads on one and a tails on the other (1/2 x 1/2) + (1/2 x 1/2) = 1/2

Thomas Hunt Morgan with the common housefly

The first solid piece of evidence indicating that a specific gene is associated with a specific chromosome

Sex chromosomes can carry genes for many traits unrelated to sex that can affect things like colorblindness and disorders (hemophilia is one of them)

50% chance each daughter will be a carrier, and a 50% chance each son will be affected

Each daughter has a 50% chance of being a carrier and a 50% chance of being unaffected, while each son has a 50% chance of being affected and a 50% chance of being unaffected

X-linked disorder, her sons have a 50% chance of being affected, and her daughters have a 50% chance of being a carrier - no sons will be carriers

A family tree that describes the interrelationships of parents and children across generations and can be used to provide evidence of inheritance along with making predictions about future offspring

Genes found on different chromosomes or far apart from each other on the same chromosome that assort independently during meiosis (the color gene and wrinkle gene for peas)

Genes found close together on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together as they do not assort independently

Influencing how traits are inherited together. When two genes are linked, meaning they are located on the same chromosome, their alleles tend to be inherited together more often than expected if they were unlinked. This can lead to a deviation from the expected Mendelian ratios in dihybrid crosses, with a greater proportion of offspring showing the same phenotypes as the parents

The result of crossing over

Offspring that show new combinations of the parental traits

50% frequency of recombination (since the percent chance of recombination is so low)

Less than 50%

Crossing over/homologous recombination

Very rare - around 4%