Psychology Midterm 2: Cognition and Language

thinking that includes processes related to perception, knowledge, problem-solving, judgment, language, and memory

a system for combining arbitrary symbols to produce infinite meaningful statements

Language is learned through operant conditioning
and imitation, but
• Parents spend little time teaching language
• Children generate more than simply what they hear
• Errors made cannot be explained through conditioning or imitation

Language is innate; more evidence converges on this theory.
• Nativist theory: Language development is best explained as an innate biological capacity (Chomsky)
• Universal grammar: A collection of processes that facilitate language learning
• Brain-imaging studies have confirmed similarities between spoken language and sign language

Interactionist explanations
• Social interactions play a crucial role in language
• Social experience interacts with innate, biological language abilities

Language shapes the nature of thought

Refers to the tendency to persist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the past
May prevent seeing other possible solutions, especially in areas where one is knowledgeable or well-trained

A type of mental set.
• It occurs when we have difficulty seeing an object as useful for anything other than its usual purpose
• Overcoming this requires thinking about objects in new ways

People give different answers to the same problem depending on how it's phrased

People make decisions about a current situation based on what reference they were given

People make decisions about a current situation based on what they have invested in it

An association of superficial cues with positive or negative evaluations

Relying on persuasion heuristics to evaluate an attitude object quickly and without much thought

• Occurs when people overestimate the depth of their understanding
• Reasoning and truth assessment may be undermined

a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge due to experience

explains how certain stimuli can trigger an automatic response

helps explain how new, voluntary actions are acquired

occurs when people acquire new behaviors by observing others' actions

natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning

an unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

a formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response

learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus

conditioning is most effective when the conditioned stimulus is presented immediately before an unconditioned stimulus

occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus but also to other, similar stimuli as well

occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli

• Procedure in which a conditioned stimulus from one learning trial functions as the unconditioned stimulus in a new conditioning trial
• The second conditioned stimulus comes to elicit the conditioned response, even though it has never been directly paired with the unconditioned stimulus

gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior
• Occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus

The school of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning

• Important first step in understanding how active, voluntary behaviors can be modified by their consequences
• Never developed his ideas on learning into a formal model

explains learning as a process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences; a basic learning process that involves changing the probability that a response will be repeated by manipulating the consequences of that response

occurrence of a stimulus or event following a response; increases the likelihood of that response being repeated

A specific stimulus that increases the likelihood of a particular response; indicates that reinforcement is likely to occur

Stimulus or event that is naturally or inherently reinforcing for a given species (food, water, sex, etc.)

stimulus or event that has acquired reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer (money, frequent-flyer points, etc.)

reinforce every desired response

only some responses are reinforced

reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered after a fixed number of responses has occurred

reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after a preset time interval has elapsed

Reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after an average time interval, which varies unpredictably from trial to trial

reward after an unpredictable number of responses (ie gambling)

when people acquire new behaviors by observing others' actions

the four steps in observational learning