1Vacuum tubes were used in which computer generation?
1st Generation
2What concept was first implemented in the IAS computer?
Stored-program concept
3Stored-program concept means what?
Instructions + data stored in same memory
4Main function of the ALU?
Operates on binary data
5Function of the Control Unit?
Interprets instructions, directs execution
6Main registers in early computers?
AC, MAR, MBR, PC, IR, IBR
7What replaced vacuum tubes in 2nd generation?
Transistors
8Why better than vacuum tubes?
Smaller, cheaper, less heat, more reliable
9Example of 2nd gen computer?
IBM 7094
10What is a data channel?
Independent I/O module with processor & instruction set
11Function of multiplexor?
Schedules memory access between CPU & channels
12What defined the 3rd generation?
Integrated Circuits (ICs)
13Basic elements of a digital computer?
Gates + memory cells
14Function of a gate?
Implements Boolean logic
15Function of a memory cell?
Stores 1 bit (two stable states)
16What defined the 4th generation?
Microprocessors
17First microprocessor?
Intel 4004
18Year of Intel 4004?
1971
19Unique about 4004?
First CPU on one chip
20Examples of later Intel processors?
8008, 8080, 8086, 8088
21Trend in microprocessors?
More transistors, faster, wider bus, more memory
22What is an embedded system?
Electronics + software inside a product (not PC)
23Examples of embedded systems?
Phones, cameras, microwaves, printers, cars, security
24Main parts of embedded system?
Processor, memory, sensors, actuators, A/D, D/A, I/O ports
25Microprocessor vs Microcontroller?
• Microprocessor = CPU only, external memory & I/O
• Microcontroller = CPU + memory + I/O on one chip
26Examples of microprocessors?
Intel i9, AMD Ryzen
27Examples of microcontrollers?
Arduino, Raspberry Pi Pico
28Computer organization refers to what?
How units + interconnections implement architecture
29Why important?
Explains how hardware executes instructions
30Technique for overlapping instruction execution?
Pipelining
31CPU feature that guesses program path?
Branch Prediction
32How branch prediction improves performance?
Prefetches instructions, avoids stalls
33Device converting energy form?
Transducer
34Examples of transducers?
Mic, speaker, thermometer, solar cell
35Elements of transduction?
Input energy, output energy, transduction process
36Device detecting phenomenon into measurable signal?
Sensor
37Examples of sensors?
Temp, light, pressure, motion, gas, humidity
38Sensor vs Transducer?
• Sensor = detects directly
• Transducer = converts energy (may or may not be sensor)
39All sensors are transducers, all transducers sensors?
False → only “all sensors are transducers” is true