1What was the Enlightenment?
18th-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, and individual rights.
2What was the Estates General of 1789?
French legislative assembly with clergy, nobility, and commoners; Third Estate’s break triggered the French Revolution.
3What was the National Assembly?
Revolutionary body formed by the Third Estate in 1789 to draft a constitution and challenge the monarchy.
4What was the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)?
Law reorganizing the Catholic Church under state control, causing division among Catholics.
5What was the Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen (1789)?
Foundational document of the French Revolution asserting natural rights like liberty and property.
6What was the Great Terror (1793–1794)?
Period of mass executions during the French Revolution under Robespierre.
7Who were the Jacobins?
Radical political group led by Robespierre, pushing for a republic and supporting the Reign of Terror.
8What was the Committee of Public Safety?
Emergency government controlled by Jacobins during the Reign of Terror to direct war and purge opposition.
9What was the Vendee War?
Catholic royalist uprising in western France, brutally suppressed by revolutionaries.
10What was the Directory (1795–1799)?
Five-man executive government after the Reign of Terror, overthrown by Napoleon.
11Who was Napoleon?
French leader who took power in 1799, crowned emperor in 1804, spread revolutionary reforms, and was eventually defeated.
12What was the Concordat of 1801?
Agreement between Napoleon and the Pope to reconcile with the Catholic Church while keeping it under state authority.
13What were the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815)?
Conflicts between Napoleon’s empire and European coalitions, spreading revolutionary ideals.
14What was the Congress of Vienna (1815)?
Meeting of European powers after Napoleon’s defeat to restore monarchies and establish conservative order.
15What was the Industrial Revolution?
Shift from agrarian to industrial economy in the 18th–19th centuries with factories, mechanization, and urbanization.
16Who were the Luddites?
Workers who destroyed machines to protest job loss and poor conditions during the Industrial Revolution.
17What was Romanticism?
Artistic movement reacting against Enlightenment rationalism, emphasizing emotion, nature, and the individual.
18What is Conservatism?
Political ideology focused on tradition, stability, and authority, rising in response to revolution and Enlightenment.
19What is Liberalism?
Political philosophy emphasizing individual freedoms, constitutional government, and free markets.
20What is Utilitarianism?
Philosophy by Jeremy Bentham prioritizing the greatest good for the greatest number.
21What was the Revolution of 1848?
Series of republic and nationalist uprisings across Europe, laying groundwork for future reforms.
22What was the Paris Commune (1871)?
Radical socialist government in Paris after the Franco-Prussian War, symbol of leftist movements.
23What is Communism?
Ideology advocating class struggle, collective ownership, and abolishing class divisions.
24What is Democratic Socialism?
Political ideology supporting democracy alongside social ownership, aiming for gradual reforms.
25What is Nationalism?
Belief that people sharing language, culture, or history should form their own nation-state.
26What was Italian Unification?
Political and military process uniting independent Italian states into one nation.
27Who was Otto von Bismarck?
Prussian chancellor who unified Germany through wars and diplomacy.
28What was the Congress of Berlin (1884)?
Meeting of European powers to divide Africa during the Scramble for Africa.
29What were the Opium Wars?
Conflicts between China and Britain over opium trade, marking Western dominance in China.
30What was the Taiping Rebellion?
Massive Chinese civil war blending Christian ideology and anti-imperialism, weakening the Qing dynasty.
31What was the Boxer Rebellion?
Chinese anti-foreign, anti-Christian uprising in 1900, crushed by foreign powers.
32What was the Kulturkampf?
Conflict between Bismarck’s German state and the Catholic Church to reduce Church influence.
33Who was Pope Leo XIII?
Catholic leader (1878–1903) known for social teachings and addressing workers' rights.
34What was the Triple Alliance?
Pre-WWI military alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
35What was the Triple Entente?
Pre-WWI military alliance of France, Russia, and Britain.
36What was the Black Hand?
Secret Serbian nationalist group that assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, triggering WWI.
37What was World War I?
Global conflict (1914–1918) collapsing empires and setting the stage for WWII.
38What was the Russian Revolution?
1917 revolutions that ended Tsarist rule and led to Bolshevik control.
39What were Soviets?
Workers' councils that were key to Lenin’s rise and central to Communist rule.
40What was the Russian Civil War?
Conflict (1918–1921) between Bolsheviks (Red) and anti-Communists (White), leading to Bolshevik victory.
41What was Red Week?
Violent worker uprisings in Italy in 1914.
42What was the Red Scare?
U.S. panic over communist influence, especially post-WWI.
43What was the Cristeros Rebellion?
Mexican uprising (1926–1929) against anti-Catholic government policies.
44What was Stalinism?
Totalitarian system under Stalin with collectivization, purges, and mass repression.
45What was the Great Leap Forward?
Mao’s radical reform causing famine and deaths of up to 45 million in China.
46What was the March on Rome?
1922 event where Mussolini seized power, starting fascist rule in Italy.
47What is Fascism?
Authoritarian ideology emphasizing nationalism and militarism, opposing liberal democracy.
48What was the Spanish Civil War?
Conflict (1936–1939) between Republicans and Nationalists, leading to Franco’s dictatorship.
49What was the Beer Hall Putsch?
Hitler’s failed 1923 coup, gaining him national attention.
50What was National Socialism?
Hitler’s ideology combining nationalism, racism, and anti-communism.
51What was the Weimar Republic?
Germany’s weak democratic government (1919–1933) before the Nazi takeover.
52What was the Fall of Communism?
Collapse of Soviet regimes in Eastern Europe and USSR (1989–1991), ending the Cold War.
53What is the “End of History”?
Fukuyama’s theory that liberal democracy triumphed after the Cold War.