PSYC 203 Exam 2 Review

-False memories can be implanted and are easier to do so if the memory is plausible
-Easier to add to a memory than create an entirely new one
-Motivation of the false event with imagery is especially effective in forming false memories in people:

e.g creation of altered balloon image with cutout of participants from actaul childhood image using guided imagery to motivate the false memory

Intrusion of other knowledge into the remembered event; relevant to schemata

schemata causing intrusion error example - remembering things in the office that were not actually there but are typical of an office <- schemata in action

Shown a list of sleep-related words; participants recall the word "sleep" even though not in the list because of schematic knowledge.

Your knowledge of what is normal or expected in a situation

subterms:
script - referring more to normal behaviors in a certain situation

How we assume how an individual in a certain role will behave (e.g. your boss at work to be strict)

A set of behaviors that feel like routine ("script") in a certain situation

How we assume how someone we are familiar with would think/feel, behave (varies by person; there is a person schema for each person we know in our mind)

-Children learn about the world by developing schema

-Assimilate into existing schema -> e.g. four legged animal is a dog
-Accomodate schema to modify what it represents -> see a cat but schema says it's a dog, so change schema's association of four legged animals to not only be associated with dogs (generalize it)

Supported Bartlett's theory of schema helping reconstruct memory in a way that makes sense, where participants drew a more stereotypical face compared to that of a man shown prior, omitting unique details about his face that didn't fit the "face schema." We alter information to make it fit with our schema.

-another example: native american story being presented to british participants, where old mother being at home was included when recalling the story (fitting some kind of schema.) More arbitrary details also excluded

unfair, negative attitude or judgements towards person or group based on perceived membership in particular group

General category into which we can sort particular instances.

-When we judge something belonging to a particular category, we are thinking of it as an instance of a particular concept.
-This instance shares attributes with others instances of the concept.
-What is a dog -> attributes that are most likely to assign to concept of a dog

an instance that you know is representative of a concept that you are trying to identify. Typically build a concept off this instance.

Building a concept by selection of objects with various strategies:
-Conservative focusing: forming hypotheses and selecting instances which test hypotheses that focus on a *single attribute* at a time
-Focus gambling: Selecting instances varying from first positive instance in more than one attribute.
-Simultaneous scanning: keeping in mind all possible hypotheses and eliminating as many as possible while going through instances
-Successive scanning: formulating single hypothesis and selecting instances until correct hypothesis emerges.

Instead of selecting one by one to learn concept, instead learn with positive instances presented in some order
Partist strategy: hypothesize that only some attributes part of the concept
Wholist strategy: hypothesize that all attributes are members of the concept

Retain both hypotheses until disconfirming evidence presented.

Each of the features contributes a probability to being the concept in question - like ML
-a given dog probably has four legs, probably barks, and probably wags its tail

individual instances of a concept may shade into one another *without any clear definable boundary to the concept itself.*

think: dogs have a familial resemblance through their attributes
-there are no critical defining features in *every* family member, but there are "characteristic features" presented across the family members.

Associated with a category - the more characteristic features an object has, the more likely we are to believe it is part of a category

a feature being typical for the family, but if excluded / another feature in place, doesn't necessarily exclude category members

Using prototypes (ideal examples) for categories to compare instances against to determine membership

Prototype formed for a category which is an average of instances seen; moreover, your *knowledge and experiences* form these.

e.g. your idea of a home in form of an ideal conceptual prototype varies based on who you are

Probabilistic model for membership - can think of continuous scale - not a simple yes/no decision

Lower response time for evaluation of a statement involving an object that is more like its prototype (could think about spreading activation in brain's network theory / nodes.)

Production:
-when people asked to name category members, more prototypical ones named first
"name as many birds as you can"

Rating:
-objects that are more prototypical are rated higher on likeness to the category
"how bird-like is this item"

Rosch - when referring to an object we typically refer to it at the basic specificity level

*basic* - most likely to name / categorize object as such , not too general or specific
*subordinate* - most specific
*superordinate* - more general

Basic - and is used by them to describe most objects

a less-ideal version of a prototype where we don't have enough info to create a prototype, so instead we reason off a specific instance of the category

This is *exemplar based reasoning.*

Prototype - compare new stimulus to single learned prototype - hence more economical
Exemplar - copmpare new stimulus to dictionary of exemplars - less economical, but esier to categorize because of variability

Knowledge network is categorization split into the three known categories

Its existence was tested by asking participants to evaluate statements that required traveling different lengths of the knowledge network - longer response time when having travel further - enforces the idea of network and the "distance" it incorporates

category AND property traversal

prototype effects can also influence the speed of the response, not just the number of links

Usually a result of brain damage - an inability to name common objects, as damage done to areas important for conceptual knowledge/semantic memory

Certain areas are better for concepts of people / animals / tools (and more)

Idea of sensory and motor areas being involved in thinking about certain concepts

e.g. thinking about (the concept of) kicking in the fMRI scanner reveals increased BOLD in motor regions for leg movement (although none is occurring.)
-> the body plays a role in our cognitive processes by creating these associations between simply thinking of a concept and the area responsible for physically carrying it out.

A system of symbols and rules that enable us to communicate. Symbols are things that stand for other things: words are symbols, whether written or spoken. Rules specify how words are ordered to form sentences and thus help communicate, think, record info, express emotion, etc.

-language can form without explicit instruction
-development appears mostly similar across different cultures
-born with innate motivation to acquire language
-children much better at learning new language than adults

-Communicative
-Arbitrary
-Structured
-Generative
-Dynamic

Allows for communication between individuals
(involves production, transmission, reception, comprehension of info)

Languages consist of symbolic elements: Sounds, pictures, words, hand signs, etc, and any of these symbols can be used to represent a thing or idea.

Symbols actually literally resembling the idea/concept in some form - e.g. a pictrograph, onomatopoeia (word to resemble the sound), or certain gestures in sign language

The ordering of symbols is not arbitrary
-Prescriptive rules describe how the structuring should be (like the "handbook")
-Descriptive rules describe the language as it is normally used by fluent speakers (e.g. "gonna")

Ordering of adjectives is important, for example, discovered from the activity - wouldn't ever say size adjective after the actual object

combination of the symbolic elemetnts of a language allow us to generate a very large range of meanings (sprawling)

neologisms - new words being constantly generated (e.g. "noob")

Languages are constantly changing - its grammar, meanings of words, and accepted word spellings constantly change

Branch of cognitive psychology interested in *how we actually interact with language* by means of comprehension, production, acquisition, and representation (apart from regular linguistics)

basic unit of sound that cannot be broken down into smaller, "meaningful" sounds - graphemes the letter(s) that represent phonemes

Complete, discrete unit of meaning in language

composed meaning of words, phrases, sentences

The word set of a language

Rules governing word arragenment in language

Rules used to convey meaning via words

Region in the brain responsible for language comprehension - physical representation to meaning

Region in the brain responsible for language production - meaning to physical representation

1) Think of the desired idea to be expressed
2) Select words according to proper meaning used to complement idea to be expressed
3) Plan ordering of words (syntax)
4) Say words (phonologically articulate them)

-semantics
-associated syntax rules
-sound (pronounciation, phonemes making it up)
-orthography

Apple - s
Base - ball
Rain - bow - s

Note the (s) here is not word-like but an indicator of plural form - that is the meaning it carries

Idea of the wanted to be spoken -> semantic features -> words (selection) -> sounds (selection)

Loudness - air velocity (diaphragm muscle)
Pitch: length and tension of vocal cords in larynx
Vowels: changes in size and shape of oral cavity
Consonants: transient obstructions in airflow

Concerning the sequences of phonemes that are acceptable

1) Receive phonological input
2) Understand the syntax based on the phonological content
3) Retrieve meaning of the words - semantics
4) Combine semantic meanings to comprehend message

Bottom-up fashion - receiving raw input and then extrapolating understanding

Supplement botom-up acoustic input with prior knowledge about words and contexts in which they appear

-Phonemic restoration effect - e.g. "legi*latures" having * be a burst of noise, but you know it should contain an "s" there.
-scrambled words, as long as they have the first and last letters in the right place, use top-down processing to mentally correct the orthographic errors.

Influence of one phoneme on the acoustic properties of another, due to articulatory movements required to produce them in sequence

voice-onset time from start of sound helps distinguish betwen [ba] and [pa]

process of determining each word's syntactic role in a sentence

Parsing of a sentence as it is uttered, leading to errors by only parsing up to what has been said.

e.g. The secretary applauded for his efforts was soon promoted

Parsing a sentence relies on knowledge of the world (top-down)

when a semantic anomaly or false statement is presented, electrical activity in brain in form of N400 peaks

Conclusion: world knowledge is an essential part of essential processing

-Another form of extralinguistic information that helps speech perception
-Patterns of rhythm, stress, intonation, pauses, and pitch changes in writing or speaking

e.g. a question being asked being higher pitch towards its end
e.g. changing stress on a certain word in a sentence to change emphasis

For most humans, structures in left cerebral cortex specialized for language learning + use

Disruption in language production or comprehension

Damage to Wernicke's area (comprehension): speech is produced but nonsensical

Damage to Broca's area (production): comprehension is intact but not production

-Children learn both languages as quickly as as monolingual children learning one language (with appropriate exposure)
-More sensitive to subtle aspects of language - more language adaptability
-Better executive control than that from a monolingual upbringing

As age increases, harder to learn other languages as well - children have an advantage at learning things like language's grammar.

Language unconsciously shapes your thinking about the world - people who speak different languages "think differently" about the world
-controversial theory

-A difference in number of words for something in two languages -> different understanding of the concept
-Same number of words for same concept -> relatively equivalent understanding of the concept

e.g. color mapping to words in English vs. Berinmo - green and blue seen as distinct concepts in English, but a single concept in Berinmo

-Language guides what you pay attention to - this indirectly shapes your thinking.
-Language can bias your attention to certain phenomena simply by its structure / lexicon.

Language is universal, unlike reading and writing

-children must specifically be taught how to read and write
-20% children affected by reading impairment

~50%

-Meaning/concept (formed in the mind) , Phonology (how it is sounded), Orthography (how it is written.)
-Paths between all pairs are bidirectional

-People with anomia can't directly name objects, can instead indirectly do so by writing it out and then reading it
-Their meaning/concept --> Phonology path is damaged

-Some people with aphasia; cannot read nonwords, but can perfectly read complex real ones and have good reading comprehension

Reicher (1969) - highlights that recognizing a letter is easier(faster) when it's part of a meaningful word compared to when it's presented alone or as part of a non-word.

-briefly flashed a stimulus, then respond which of the two letters shown was in it
-initial conclusions that brain processes word as a whole

stimulus detectors -> feature detectors -> letter detectors -> word detectors

all of these happen at once, forming a word; then we can later parse the word in our mind for letters

-Sensory receptors (eyes) -> thalamus -> sensory processing region (visual areas in occipital lobe)
-Contralaterality
-Slightly slower pathway than auditory pw

-VWFA - visual word form area - not as developed as FFA since writing has only been around for past few thousand years (less evolution of it)
-in the left fusiform gyrus

-large activation for words and nonwords, versus random stringing together of things like consonants (control)
-case INsenstitive

Damage to VWFA shows still able to name pictures, but not read words properly (can think the "word detectors" and that general parallel processing tree is damaged)

Read MEG (magnetoencephelogram) data to see M170 response correlates to VWFA - only seen for words/letters, not other visual symbols

Original had an area evolved for perception of line junctions, then reattributed to letters (having them)

-slow reading
-10-20% of population
-more common in men than women
-not correlated with intelligence

-dyslexics have diminshed M170 activity (in VWFA) compared to non-dyslexics
-NOT a general fusiform gyrus activation problem for dyslexics - FFA still works just as it should

-response to perception of faces is more bilateral for illiterate people
-if learn to read, see FFA move to right hemisphere as seen in literate people

-Dyslexia is damaged connection between orthography and phonology in the lexical triangle - VWFA represents this
-Dyslexics cannot develop this connection as well, so VWFA less used therefore less developed

A property of a language that describes how consistent the relationship is between written letters and corresponding phonology

-English: opaque (e.g. Couch, Touch: "owch," "uch")
-Spanish, Finnish, German: transparent
-Level of transparency has NO relation to number of dyslexic speakers by proportion for different languages

Yes, as literacy strengthens the whole language system, not just one part of it

-Representations and accompanything experience of sensory information WITHOUT a direct external stimulus
-Required in day-to-day life

-e.g. "what does your desk at home look like," "which is larger, a golf ball or an apple," "what does the cover of this textbook look like?"
-> mentally picturing these scenarios without actually seeing/experiencing them externally at all

-Mental images are internal representations and are manipulated, processed, and behave the same as physical objects
-We treat them as physical entities

Just like actual visual perception:
-Limited "angle" view
-Limited perceptual field
-Scanning and manipulating an object take time

Asking participants to manipulate a mental image and measure the reaction time as the dependent variable (how long the manipulations take)

-Memorize this map, then close your eyes and imagine it
-Choose a pair of landmarks and tell me when you arrive at your destination (some set speed)
-Result: took longer to mentally travel longer distances, supporting functional equivalence hypothesis (emulating real life)

-A caveat in experiments where the participants receive cues that may signal how they're "supposed to" behave, in wanting to giving "good" data
-But not actually good, as not following intended route of the experiment

-Shepard & Metzler 1971 - Judge whether two stimuli shown are same or different
-Larger degree of mental rotation = more brain activity
-we see hemispheric symmetry here across large range of degree rotations

-See that when alternating between perception and imagery of faces or places, FFA and PPA activity levels, respectively, are still high regardless of actually perceiving or visualizing
-TMS disruption also disrupts imagery - support of idea that area responsible for both perceptual processing and creation of visual images

Being only able to attend to only one half of the visual field - ALSO reflects in patterns of visual imagery

-Given 10 seconds to visualize an image instructed to them between "go" and "stop" signals
-Record relative fMRI signal (as a percentage change from normal level) to measure vividness of image
-Low score: very vivid
-High score: no image being visualized
-But if the fMRI relative level and vividness are actually causally related is still a question

Metal blindness - inability to form visual images - very rare, only about 1-3% of population

-When R is rotated 180 degrees, peak (slowest) reaction time
-response is symmetric around 180 degrees

Carmichael, Hogan, and Walters 1932

-participants supplied original figure and text labels
-later when asked to redraw original figure, instead draw something closer to label that was associated with figure
-theory that the verbal coding of the figure is remembered rather than the figure itself

-participants given stimulus + response word pairs
-participants to generate second word when cued with first (stimulus)
-better results all around when more involvement of concerete words, as easier to remember and imagine

-Blind people are not able to visually perceive anything
-But still show same effects in mental rotation and image scanning tasks as normal people
-Their functional equivalence is still OK

-Different brain regions responsible for visual vs. spatial imagination
-A transformation would correspond to visual task - like objection rotation
-Needing spatial context like visualization of the location of a target with a space corresponds to spatial task
-See blue vs. yellow regions in brain that are clearly separate for the two tasks

-Therefore, important to separate transformations (visual) vs. spatial imagery tasks as independently functioning

-Based in the parietal cortex, which integrates multimodal sensory info
-So spatial information and hence imagery can be visual, but also auditory or tactile

Damage to one of these regions does not affect performance of the other on tasks that it handles.

-London taxi drivers have a larger hippocampus than non taxi drivers as their hippocampus constantly is stimulated in forming these cognitive maps
-Hippocampus size proportional to years of exp. as taxi driver

-Activate image frame, then elaborate on it
-Images that have more detail take longer time to recreate as more elaboration is required

-Ability to maintain a mental image that has quality of reviving a previous perceptual event with great clarity
-Photographic memory: where eidetic imagery is commonplace for the individual

Around 1 in 1 million for adults, but about ~5% of all children

-Experience of sound in your mind without receptive cells of your ears actually being stimulated.
-Uses same neural pathways as auditory perception
-earworm - auditory imagery of some catchy music (or something else) on repeat

-phonographic memory in mozart

-Mental imagery increases performance in simple and complex motor tasks (e.g. imagery of how your opponent will make their next move in fencing)
-Multimodal mental imagery increase in competitive athletes

-Stimulus appropriate to one sense (e.g. sound) triggers an experience in another sense (e.g. color)
-Inducer is the cue eliciting the response in the other sense
-e.g. think of indie summer music, causes to think of the color yellow (like summer)
-e.g. hear rock, think black or red (hardcore)

People susceptible to an indcuer to inducer in one sensory modality producing concurrent image in another sensory modality

Pruning process of neurons fails, so differentiation between senses is less prominent! Anatomically based connection between them.

Inability to see beyond most common use of a particular object, and recognize it could also function in a different way to solve a problem at hand

-Well structured has an appropriate algorithm to solve it. Ill-defined is where the method to reach the solution is not immediately clear.
-Better solve ill-defined problems by laying out subgoals

The set of all states that can be reached in solving the problem

e.g. tic tac toe, an escape room, chess, checkers, etc.

-A problm solving heuristic where you choose an option that moves you closer to your goal at every step of a problem
-Sometimes required to go backward to ultimately make progress, so this method is limited

Split into subgoals: goal --> subgoals --> sub-sub goals --> actions

-Requires focus on problem's "deep structure"
-General "variables," functions, etc.
-Mapping problem onto structurally related cases can be difficult - motivate by encouraging to focus on deep structure
-Experts more likely to use analogies

e.g. approach to thinking about a logarithm, its structure / how it works

Able to split information into chunks, creating subproblems within a problem to reduce memory load and increase performance

e.g. A novice vs. an expert chess player looking at a board layout for 5 seconds
-Expert organizes pattern into chunks

We must look at the problem at different angle before attempting to solve it

Insight helps solve problems suddenly with a solution, whereas without insight is a gradual progression to solution

Collection of beliefs and assumptions a person makes about a problem

e.g. in the 9 dot problem, may not have assumed that you can cross lines to solve the problem

The problem solver's beliefs, habits, and preferred strategies (that they have adapted to and find work for them) - familiar solutions

-reduces distractions from wrong strategies, but..
-can sometimes blind you to important options/solutions to explore

Younger children less functionally fixed than older children - can see by the fact that time to solution of a problem with pre-utilization increases as a child gets older, as the prior utilization has them rely on the strategy they used then, possibly getting them "stuck."

-Intact dorosolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) lets us override our habitual responses to a problem
-Damage to this region causes rigidity in thinking (since we can't override our habitual responses)
-DLPFC necessary for us to make seemingly coutnerintuitive moves instead to inhibit obvious moves (search for a more clever route)

-Given one half of 3 compound words and are asked to find the same prefix/suffix that fits all of them
-A test of insight

Right hemisphere activity

A solution popping into your mind after setting the problem aside (eureka moment)

For:
-Allowing thoughts to wander promotes spreading of network activation around the solution - may allow related ideas to come to mind
-Sustained effort can lead to fatigue and frustration
Against:
-Better to keep working on a task to take advantage of memory recency effect

Wagner et al. 2004: Those who had slept after training were more likely to produce insightful solutions (59%) than those who had not (22%)

-Number reduction task experiment with a hidden rule - if had slept after practicing the problem a little bit, the participant was much more likely to gain insight about the hidden rule
-REM sleep allows for thought restructuring and connections to take place -> insight more likely to come even though asleep

-For participants who were to take a 20 minute break from a task, they hold a water bottle in their right hand, so just as when it falls, they report stream of thoughts that come in just having entered sleep as just have being woken up
-when half asleep myself have experienced large stream of thoughts

N1 - 83% of the group gained insight onto the hidden rule, and N2 actually performed worse than the awake group

"Interaction among aptitude, process, and environment, by which individual or group produces a perceptible product that is both novel and useful within a social context"

Some people are more flexible in their approaches to problems, others rely on routine or defer to existing norms (functional fixedness)

-Great knowledge+skill in domain
-Certain personality traits, like risk-taking and ignoring criticism (e.g. famous standout artists)
-Motivated by pleasure of the work itself
-Are often devoid of stress, have plenty of time, instrinsic motivation for their work

Wallas 1926 - It has four stages:
-Preparation (gathering info)
-Incubation (conscious break from task)
-Illumination (insight emerging / eureka moment)
-Verification - confirmation of idea actually being a valid solution

We don't actually always hit every step, and may go back and forth between them

Generation of alternative problem solutions without foresight, and retention of those that do work as well

-Engage in process of variation (permutations)
-Select variations based on a set of criteria
-Retain those selected variations (in memory over time)

individuals who are more likely to make remote (uncommon) associations between ideas (alternate uses for objects)
-> less functional fixedness

The ability to see connections between distinct ideas (the ideas are already presented to you, but you form the connections)

-e.g. forming connections between a list of words

Ability to move one's thoughts in new directions (you must generate new ideas from scratch)
-> breaking out of functional fixedness

-e.g. thinking of different number of ways a coffee mug could be used

-fluency
-originality
-flexibility
-elaboration

How much one's current thinking breaks away from past thoughts

U-shaped performance over time:
-preconventional (free of learned constraints)
-conventional (under learned conventions)
-postconventional (mastery, unconventionality)

e.g. Picasso's developmental trajectory

-Proposals that creativity also involves actively searching for problems, and the quality of a solution depends on the formulation of the problem itself

Method:
-Formulate a problem
-Devise a method
-Reach solution

Process through which we draw conclusions based on eviednce we encounter

-The default choice for an organ donation system is highly important for percentage of people that will be organ donors
-People would rather not make the emotionally complex choice that is raised by organ donation, so stick with default choice

Opt-In system defaults you to not being an organ donor -> lower organ donor rate
Opt-out system defaults you to being an organ donor -> much higer organ donor rate

-If behavior was rational, there shouldn't be a difference in consent rates between the systems - we find it isn't entirely rational, there are external influences in play here.

Objective and logical behavior

Subjective and biased behavior (e.g. behavior stemming from racism, sexism, etc., which results from a disregard for facts / objectivity)

Psychological factors that affect decision making of humans in *consistent* ways

Decision making that operates quickly without much effort and control, and is subconscious

Decision making with more effort and deliberate control, conscious

Consists of Fast and Slow thinking - Heuristic and Normative judgements, respectively

imperfect knowledge, subjective probabilities / heuristics (the heuristics you use let you judge something on your own subjective probability scale)

Mentals shortcuts we take when trying to think fast
-practical, efficient
-but creates biases in judgement (subjective probabilities stem from biases)

-base rate frequencies are the ground truth frequency/probability of something occurring
-but with descriptive information about something, it may cause us to ignore these probabilities (though, not necessarily a bad thing)

$5 is given to people which they can choose to donate to charity -After they answer how much they want to donate: -Told how much other people donate, can revise their prediction about how much the pool outside of themselves would donate on average -Found that people generally see their generosity as superior to others

-Estimate the likelihood of an event based on how closely it mathes or represents related example/stereotype in mind
-Law of small numbers - generalizing a small sample of a group to be representative of a whole group (e.g. racist stereotypes)

The probability of a conjunction cannot be higher than the probability of either A or B alone -> descriptive information can still blind us to this.

-Faulty reasoning that past events in a sequence affect the likelihood of future events - think independence of events and given events

-Assuming independence is conserved in an experiment involving chance - if we know the previous series of outcomes (given,) no change on chance for a certain next outcome

Variable Y being able to be predicted by variable X in a probabilistic sense

Incorrect assumptions in how one variable is predicting another

e.g. cities having more crime than in rural areas, when in fact the crime rate per 1000 people for example, is less than that in a rural area, but more crime *incidence* because simply more people

Tendency to be more accepting of information that confirms your beliefs than to evidence that challenges them (e.g. politics)

-Estimate the frequency of an event based on how easily examples come to mind
-But not so great as anything that increases the event's availability can increase its perceived likelihood (although actual likelihood not as large.)

e.g. see sharks in water, overestimate the actual probability of sharks in the water

Overestimate - rare events more likely to be well-recorded in memory, making it more available to consciousness than common events
-> leads to overestimation

-Supporting the availability heuristic by showing events that are actually not common on a semi-frequent basis.
-Need to be careful and use system 2 thinking

Type 1:
-Lazy
-Time Pressure
-Distracted / Inebriated

Type 2:
-Controlled focus and deliberation

-Availability Heuristic
-Representativeness Heuristic
-Base rate fallacy

The resulting gap/error in thinking that can affect judgement and decision making (integrated into heuristics)

-People are more inclined to seek evidence that would confirm a belief rather than evidence that would may disconfirm it
-We show beter memory for confirming evidence than disconfirming evidence

The tendence to continue endorsing a belief even when disconfirming evidence is undeniable
e.g. belief in denial of climate change although presented with clear evidence of it

The tendency to revise one's belief insufficiently when shown new evidence
e.g. Judges use prosecutor's requested sentence as an "anchor" to work off of for deciding a sentence
-problem here: the judge should be adjusting the sentence more than is being done when new evidence is given (for better or worse) a.k.a. is somewhat "stuck" to it

An unacceptable anchor is first set by the other person, and you look to defuse it since you know that is the tactic they are trying to use. Here, revising insufficiently although THEY proposed the far-off anchor, which is why that tactic is used. Ex. Car salespeople.

-We often believe our abilities are better than they actually are
-Dunning-Kruger effect: people with low knowledge/ability overestimate themselevs, but people with high ability also underestimate themselves

Overreliance on one's own perspective, failing to consider alternative perspectives
-appears more common in older adults than in children, young adults

Overestimating ability to judge correctly

Tendency to overestimate one's ability to influence events

Bias in someone behaving more compassionate to a small, identifiable number of victims rather than a large pool of anonymous ones

e.g. giving a homeles person food/money but not donating to a charity for them

-Education can emphasize the importance of type 2 reasoning, as Type 1 reasoning is heavily reliant on heuristics which introduce subjectivity in judgement

Forecasting new cases based on observed cases - inference of general law based on limited observations

Start with given premises and ask what follows from them - begins with existing theory - the research process

All A are B

No A are B

Some A are B (at least one, and possibly all)

Some A are NOT B

Choosing option with greatest expected value

Can change decisions though outcomes are the same simply by changing wording of choices

-If presented sure gain or risk, people pick sure gain (risk-averse) --> avoid loss with sure gain
-If presented sure loss or risk, people pick risk (risk-seeking) --> avoid loss by seeking possibility of win
-both cases: seeking case that seems better in avoiding loss (though the loss could be more severe with the risk case)

People are also influened by evidence framing

Sally more likely to pick a treatment if it is described in terms of its success rate than its failure rate, due to tone of words that influence decisions

More choices that are similar to each other and difficult to justify picking one over the other makes the person pick the choice not involving those close choices at all!

"Analysis Paralysis"

e.g. doctors choosing between surgery and 1 medication vs. surgery and 2 medications

Prefrontal cortex (split into its subdivisions)

Weighing value of rewards - making associations between stimulus and reward

-Damgaged orbitofrontal cortex does not allow person to properly update the association between stimulus and reward, so they are unable to move away from those options/choices

Hippocampus - access to previous experience
Amygdala - Emotional decision making
Caudate Nucleus - balance what we observe and desire

-Weighing uncertain events
-Coordinating muscle movements (move or not)
-Impulsivity/Compulsivity

The ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills

Some factors:
-Processing speed for a general task - longer time negatively correlated with intelligence (e.g deciding which of two tones is higher in pitch)
-Working memory capacity (WMC)
-Executive control abilities - how well people can monitor and direct their own thought process - being able to focus and inhibit distractors

Prediction for various important life factors:
-Academic performance
-Getting a job
-Job performance
-Health, mortality

-Credited for first "intelligence" test - Late 1800s
-Measured "sensitivity" with psychophysical and reaction time measures
-Two qualities that made up "human faculty": energy and sensitivity

-Arranging cases identical in appearance buit differed in weight (eyes closed, see the level of their sensitivity)
-Hearing test using a whistle: people can't hear tones of high pitch as cats, so cats are more intelligent than us in this area

1899: Asked to join Free Society for the Psychological Study of the Child, group in Paris studying school children
1904: Appointed to commission that studied, created tests to help ensure mentally defective children would receive adequate education

Believed judgement was central to intelligence, and that galton's tests were flawed
-Hellen Keller was intelligent, but simply because deafblind, would have failed Galton's tests

Direction: knowing what needs to be done and how to do it
Adaptation: selecting and monitoring strategies during task performance
Control: Ability to critique one's thoughts and actions

(DAC)

Ideational: intelligence via words, ideas (logical analysis, verbal reasoning)
Instinctive: intelligence via feeling (refers to lack of instinctive/animalistic feeling - departure from this)

-Vary across age from age 3 to adult
-Showed child 3 pairs of faces to a child and asked which one is prettier
(this however cannot be argued as objective today - attractiveness in a subjective quality - so would've been an invalid test)

Lewis Terman - adapted Binet-Simon test for american children into Stanford-Binet test
IQ = (MA/CA)x100 (mental age/chronological age) - if your mental age matches your chronological age (standard for your age,) you are average = 100

-Eugenics - only the "best" should procreate
-Eugenics term actually coined by Francis Galton himself
-Eugenic certificates

Believe intelligence is corelated with race and ethnicity

-First started to help children in school
-Evolved into segregating and discriminating against entire cultures and communities (eugenics!)
-Still around today, inherently dangerous as seen from how it came to be abused

Charles Spearman - split intelligence into "factors" in his statistical tool called "factor analysis"

-Factor that varies across individuals, but remains *stable for any one individual*: an individual baseline
-"Broad mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures"
-Main determinant is heredity, can be shaped by external factors such as schooling, occupation
-Accounts for HALF of variability in academic achievement, work performance

Factor contributed to by knowledge or skills in certain domains/tasks

G is more general and higher order - top of hierarchy, primary factor
S contributes to g - lower in hierarchy (secondary factor)

Raymond Cattell
-The ability to deal with novel problems
-Declines with age, peaks in early adulthood

Raymond Cattell
-Acquired knowledge
-Increases with age

-Belived there was a separate developmental history of each intelligence
-Several proposed types of intelligence (notes)

Sternberg - Intelligence in terms of intellectual components that "operate on internal representations of objects, symbols":
Component - elementary information process
Object, Symbol - chunk of information thatis handled by components

Differences in intelligence --> variations in speed and accuracy with which people carry out mental operations

Executive processes used in planning, monitoring, decision-making in task performance - control execution of other components

Used in execution of a task
-Encoding all aspects of problem situation
-Comparing parts of the problem
-Generating appropriate response

-processes concerned with learning new info and storing it in memory

-key aspect: filtering out irrelevant information, picking up relevant information

Intelligent behavior has 3 different types of intelligence:

-Analytical Intelligence: The ability to solve relatively straightforward problems (general intelligence)
-Creative intelligence: Ability to reason using novel concepts
-Practical intelligence: Ability to find problem solutions in real-world, everyday situations

Sternberg and O'Hara (1999)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.