Learning and Memory

> a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience or practice.
> is the acquisition of information, knowledge, and skills.

Divisions of Learning

Observational learning is sometimes also referred to as shaping, modeling, and ______________.

describes the process of learning through watching others, retaining the information, and then later replicating the behaviors that were observed.

Although _____________ facilitates learning, Bandura says it is not a necessary condition. People can learn, for example, by observing models being reinforced.

Bobo Doll Experiment is by

Process Of Observational Learning

> Observational learning or modeling will not occur unless the subject pays attention to the model.
> Developing our cognitive processes and perceptual skills so that we can pay sufficient attention to a model, and perceive the model accurately enough, to imitate displayed behavioru

Retaining or remembering the model’s behavior so that we can imitate or repeat it later; for this, we use our cognitive processes to form mental images and verbal descriptions of the model’s behavior.

We can retain information about a model’s behavior in two ways:

form vivid, easily retrievable images while we are observing the model.

operates similarly and involves a verbal coding of some behavior we have observed.

Translating the mental images or verbal symbolic representations of the model’s behavior into our own overt behavior by physically producing the responses and receiving feedback on the accuracy of our continued practice

Perceiving that the model’s behavior leads to a reward and thus expecting that our – learning and successful performance of the same behavior will lead to similar consequences.

Our incentive to learn is influenced by our anticipation of the reinforcement or punishment by doing so.

> Bandura believes that complex human behavior can be learned when people think about and evaluate the consequences of their behaviors.
> The consequences of our responses motivate our anticipatory behavior; that is, we can represent future outcomes and act accordingly.

> The learning process allows people to have some degree of control over the events that shape the course of their lives.
> Control, however, rests with a three-way reciprocal interaction of __________, _________, and __________.

It states that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment.

is a method or process wherein the learner associates a certain response to an object or a stimulus resulting in a positive or negative outcome.

Associative learning is a form of ________, a theory that states behavior can be modified or learned based on a stimulus and a response.

(Associative Learning)
Two Types of Conditioning:

is known for his famous experiment with conditioning the salivation response in dogs, which brought about classical conditioning.

Pavlov was dosing his dog with meat powder for his research because he knew that salivation in response to meat powder is a _____.

> are unlearned and evoked by certain stimuli.
> Pavlov discovered that _______ can also be learned or conditioned by association.

A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response.

A natural, usually unvarying response elicited by stimulus without learning or conditioning.

A previously neutral stimulus that,
after repeated association with an
unconditioned stimulus, elicits the
response elicited by the UCS.

A response that becomes associated with a previously unrelated stimulus as a result of pairing the stimulus with another stimulus that normally elicits the response.

experimental procedure in which stimuli lose their ability to evoke learned responses because the events that had followed the stimuli no longer occur

The recurrence of an extinguished response as a function of the passage of time.

In conditioning, the tendency for a conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned.

The tendency for an organism to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not forecast unconditioned stimulus.

> was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher.
> Operant Conditioning

is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through ____________ ____________, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence (Skinner, 1938).
-Increase the probability that a behavior will occur when the reinforcers are removed.

The process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of an event that it follows

Increase the probability that a behavior will occur when they are applied.

Increase the probability that a behavior will occur when the reinforcers are removed.

are defined as stimuli that increase the frequency of behavior.

a pleasant stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior it follows

An unpleasant stimulus that suppresses the behavior that it follows

Schedules of Reinforcement

After a specified number of responses

After an unpredictable number of responses

After a specified amount of time

After an unpredictable amount of time

> refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later retrieving information.
> is how we draw on our past experiences to use this information in the present (Sternberg, 1999)

PROCESSES OF MEMORY

Modifying information so that it can be placed in memory.

3 types of code

It is the maintenance of information over time; the second stage of information processing.

Two types of Storage

The location of stored information and its return to consciousness; third stage.

Stages of Memory

The type or stage of memory first encountered by a stimulus.

It involves the immediate and small amount of information that a person actively uses as they perform cognitive tasks.

The type or stage of memory that can hold information for up to a minute or so after the trace of the stimulus decays.

The type or stage of memory capable of relatively permanent storage.

Memory Systems

> It is the recalling of information that has been previously learned.
> Explicit and Implicit memories

Memory to perform an act in the future, as at a certain time or when a certain event occurs.

Kinds of Memory

> Memory that clearly and distinctly expresses specific information.
> Also referred to as declarative memory.

> Memory that is suggested but not plainly expressed or verbally explained.
> A memory of how to perform a procedure or skill; it is the act itself, or doing something

Two Kinds of Explicit Memory

> (I know…)
> General knowledge as opposed to episodic memory.
“I know how painful…”

> (I remember…)
> Memories or events experienced by a person or that take place in the person’s presence.
“I remember the boy, but I don’t remember the feelings anymore”

The apparent loss or modification of information encoded and stored in an individual’s long-term memory.

It is the general term for the ability to recall certain memories.

inability to recall events before the age of two or three is also termed childhood amnesia.

Failure to remember events that occur after physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma.
(new memories)

failure to remember events that occur prior to physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma.
(past memories)