Comptia A+ 1101

Identify the problem

Establish a theory of probable cause

Test your theory to determine the cause of the problem. *If the theory is not confirmed, re-establish a new theory

Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution.

Verify full system functionality.

Document findings, actions, and outcomes.

An optical connector that allows high quality audio output to a surround sound system

A network that covers a relatively small area such as a building or a group of buildings.

Provides communication for devices owned by a single user that work over a short distance. Includes things like Bluetooth, IR, NFC and similar.

Provide better colors, better viewing angles, and are a bit more expensive than other display types.

Thinner and brighter displays that don’t need a backlight because each pixel self-illuminates. One of the most expensive display types.

Manage company and user devices. Offers a centralized management system. Ensures device security.

Allows phone to connect to the right tower

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) -20(TCP) is used for Data Transfer -21(TCP) is used to Control Data Transfers

A server that manages the storage and transfer of e-mail messages on a network.

A node that handles communication between its LAN and other networks

Generally connects LANs across a distance. Uses many different technologies such as Point-to-Point, Serial, MPLS, etc.

Uses light to transfer data instead of RF signals. It is difficult to monitor and tap due to this.

Short range communication (2km) and uses cheaper LEDs.

Long Range Communication (100km) and uses expensive cables.

SuperSpeed at 5 Gigabits per second. Typically at a maximum of 3 meters but no specified length.

Digital audio and video interface with a 19-pin Type-A Connector. Typically maxes out at 20 meter cable lengths.

A type of connector for attatching external harddisks using the SATA protocol.

A way to utilize multiple storage disks to achieve either increased throughput or increased redundancy, or both, depending on level. Can be utilized with inexpensive disks.

Striping. This mode splits data evenly between two or more disks. Multiplies disk performance but offers no redundancy. If one drive fails that renders the entire storage array as ruined.

Mirroring. Files are duplicated between 2 or more disks. This mode has high disk utilization since files are doubled but also high redundancy since each drive is effectively a clone of the other.

Striping with Parity. Data is split evenly between 3 or more drives, which multiplies drive speeds. This mode is like RAID 0 but it involves placing a parity block in each drive. This parity block can be used to restore the data in one of the drives should one of them fail. Efficient disk use.

Requires at least 4 drives. Involves the striping of mirrored drives. This allows the user to combine the speed of striped drives with the redundancy of mirrored ones.

A bus that used to be common to personal computers that uses a 32 or 64-bit data path. Several variations exist. Common on older PCs.

Used in between a heat-sink and a CPU. Not reusable and not as effective as thermal paste. Its main advantage is that it is mess free.

Lightweight and Inexpensive. This display technology has poor black levels due to separate backlight.

This display technology has fast response times and is relatively low cost. It also has low power usage, but is not ideal because it has very limited viewing angles.

Sets policies and restrictions on apps. Used to control company software, such as for performing updating or removal, etc.

Secure Shell (SSH) - TCP. Used for encrypted communication. Looks and acts the same as Telnet.

Telnet (Telecommunications Network) - TCP. Non-encrypted communication. Used to log into devices remotely.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - TCP. Used to send mail from device to mail server.

Domain Name System (DNS) - UDP. Connects to server that converts names to IP addresses. CRITICAL resource.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) - UDP. Automated configuration of local IP addresses. IPs can be reserved for certain devices. IP Range from 10.1.10.10 to 10.1.10.199.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - TCP. Non-encrypted communication in the browser.

Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) - TCP. Receive emails from an email server. Provides basic mail transfer functionality.

Internet Mail Access Protocol (IMAP) - TCP. Includes management of email inboxes from multiple clients, which allows the sync of email across multiple devices.

Simple Network Management Protocol - UDP. Port 161 queries devices for performance statistics. Port 162 monitors when metrics exceed a certain threshold.

Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) - TCP. Store and retrieve info in a network directory. Commonly used with Microsoft Active Directory.

Hyper Text Tranfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) - TCP. Encrypted Communication in the browser.

Server Message Block (SMB) & Common Internet File System (CIFS) - TCP. Provides direct connection and communication over TCP without the NetBIOS Transport.

Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) - TCP. Share a desktop from a remote location.

Extends wired network and converts it into a wireless network.

Routes traffic between IP subnets

Filters traffic by TCP/UDP port number (OSI Layer 4 filtering). Some can filter based on the application. Can encrypt traffic in/out of the network (protect traffic between sites). It can proxy traffic (common security technique). Can be used as a Layer 3 device (routers).

Devices that send Ethernet data and power over twisted-pair cable to compliant devices, such as security cameras, VoIP phones, etc.

Cable Version: Uses DOCSIS (Data over Cable Service Interface Specification) over a coaxial cable and is a form of broadband. DSL Version: Uses ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line) via a phone line where download speed is faster than upload.

The box inside home or office where the ISP fiber optic line connects. The line stretches to the demarcation (demarc) point which is where your in-home copper wiring takes over.

A device that serves as an interface between the computer and the network. Also called a network adapter or network card. Provides an Ethernet or Wi-Fi + Bluetooth connection to the computer. May need drivers installed before hardware is inserted.

Established 1999. 2.4 GHz at a maximum link rate of 11 Mbit/s.

Established 1999. 5 GHz at a maximum link rate of 54 Mbit/s.

Established 2003. 2.4 GHz at a maximum of 54 Mbit/s.

Established 2009. 2.4 or 5 Ghz at a maximum of 600 Mbit/s.

Established 2014. 5 Ghz at a maximum of almost 7 Gbit/s.

Converts a website name into an IP Address. Usually managed by either the ISP or an enterprise IT department.

The server that leases IP addresses to network clients. IP Ranges from 10.1.10.10 through 10.1.10.199.

Centralized storage of documents, files, etc. Standard system of file management. Typically use SMB (Server Message Block) or AFP (Apple Filing Protocol) to communicate.

Connects a printer to a network. Provides printing services for all network devices. Typically built-in to the printer but not always. Uses standard printing protocols such as SMB (Server Message Block), IPP (Internet Printing Protocol), or LPD (Line Printer Daemon).

A type of server used for collecting system messages from networked devices. Usually a centralized logging receiver.

A server that delivers requested webpages to your computer or mobile devices. Uses HTTP/HTTPS and HTML/HTML5. Web pages are stored on the server itself.

A server that keeps track of who’s logging on to the network and which services on the network are available to the user. Redundant server, it must always be available.

Checks for unsolicited emails. Scans incoming mail to accept or reject it.

Services provided include: URL filters and content inspection, firewall, malware inspection, spam filters, VPN Endpoints, intrusion detection systems and intrusion prevention systems.

A dedicated network device that can direct requests to different servers based on a variety of factors. Distributes load to multiple servers. Server outages have no affect as a result. TCP & SSL offload.

A server that acts as an intermediary between a user and the Internet. Provides access control, URL Filtering, and Content Scanning.

Large-scale. PC manages equipment. Usually expensive software, requires elevated permission to access.

Appliances such as fridges, microwaves, thermostats, and smart doorbells and locks that can access the Internet to provide increased functionality.

The dominant protocol for routing traffic on the Internet. Uses 4 number groups (X.X.X.X). 32 bit or 4 bytes -> 8 bits per number. Max value for each number is 255.

8 hexadecimals (X.X.X.X.X.X.X.X). 128 bits or 16 bytes -> 16 bits per number.

Link local addresses (no router forwarding). IETF has reserved 169.254.0.0 - 169.254.255.255. Only communicates on your network.

An IP address that is manually assigned to a device and remains constant until it is manually changed.

IP addresss assigned by a DHCP server. This method insures there is never an overlap in IP addresses within a network. Changes when the lease expires.

13 root server clusters (over 1,000 actual servers). 100’s of Generic Top Level Domains (gTLD). Over 275 Country-Code Top-Level Domains (ccTLD).

A records are for IPv4 addresses, while AAAA records are for IPv6 addresses.

Determines host name for mail server.

Can be used for verfication purposes. Commonly used for email security. External email servers validate info from your DNS.

Domain Keys Identified Mail (DKIM): Digitally signs a domain’s outgoing mail. The public key is available in the DKIM TXT records. Sender Policy Framework (SPF): List of all servers authorized to send emails on behalf of this domain; prevents email spoofing. The mail server validates mail is coming from an authorized host. Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting, & Conformance (DMARC): Extension of DKIM/SPF. Decides what servers do with mail that isn’t accepted by SPF/DKIM.

Created by the DHCP server to allow a system requesting an IP to use that IP for a certain amount of time.

An IP address that is set aside by a DHCP server for a specific network client, which is identified by its MAC address.

An IP address that is set aside by a DHCP server for a specific network client, which is identified by its MAC address.

Separated logically instead of physically. Multiple domains under one physical switch.

Concentrator. Encryption/Decryption Access Device. Actively encrypts and decrypts a user’s data packets.

Non-terrestrial communication. Typically arount 50 Mbit/s down, 3 Mbit/s up. Highest latency at around 250 ms up/down. Utilizes high radio frequencies at around 2 GHz.

High speed communication but comes at a higher installation cost than copper wires. Large installation in the WAN core. Supports high data rates. SONET, Wavelength Division Multiplexing.

Broadband, which means that there is transmission across multiple different frequencies. DOCSIS. High speeds at around 50-1000 Mbit/s.

Most common form is Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), which means that the upload speeds are not as fast as the download. Common speeds involve 200 Mbit/s down and 20 Mbit/s up.

Separates land into “cells” and each cell covers a different frequency. Accessed by PCs and other devices through tethering, where you turn your phone into a router. Also known as mobile hotspot.

Connects rural and remote locations. Needs an outdoor antenna to connect. Basically connects a home or business to the cellular network.

A network covering a city. Bigger than Local Area Networks (LAN), but usually smaller than Wide Area Networks (WAN). Common to see under government ownership.

A computer network that can be accessed by many that provides a shared pool of storage space. Looks and feels like a local storage device. Requires high bandwidth. Some people may use an isolated network solely for the this.

A self-contained network of two or more computers connected using a wireless connection. Usually within a building.

Used typically for RJ45 Ethernet cables, this device is used to pinch on the head of the connector onto the wire. In order to do this, you must first expose the wire, then separate them into the correct order. Then you push the wires down into the connector head until they are firmly in place on to the contacts. Then you use the crimper to seal the connector head.

Can be a program on a computer, this is used to monitor the 802.11 signals coming from Wireless Access Points. Is used to identify errors and interference and is typically also used to validate antenna locations and installations.

One device sends an analog sound down through the cable it is attatched to. Then the second makes a noise or lights up when it is touching the cable where the generator is attatched. This duo is used for easy wire tracking.

A pointed tool used to insert twisted-pair wire into receptors in a punch-down block. Organization is key, and it is important to maintain twists in the cables.

Continuity testing. Can be used to identify missing pins or crossed wires. Not usually used for frequency testing.

Useful for testing the physical ports on a device. Can be used on serial, Ethernet, T1 or Fiber connections. Works by emulating a network connection by having data leave the interface, come back around, and reentering.

Used to intercept network traffic to monitor traffic and identify malicious activity or security threats. Physical taps involve disconnecting the link and putting the tap in the middle. There are both active and passive taps. Passive TAPs don’t require power and basically split the signal into two, but you need to worry about split ratios and signal/light-loss. Active TAPs require their own power to regenerate the signals and retransmit them to both destinations. Point-of-failure during power outage, but no need to worry about split ratios. A port mirror is a software based tap. Also called a Switched Port Analyzer (SPAN). Has more limited functionality.

Cable used to connect to a network infrastructure. 1000Base-T Ethernet standard. Works up to 100 meters.

Uses 10GBase-T Ethernet standard. Unshielded CAT6 works up to 55 meters, while shielded CAT6 and CAT6a can work up to 100 meters.

A single copper wire cable surrounded in layers. Uses an RG-6 connector. Commonly used in TV’s, cable boxes, and modems. Provides High-Speed Internet over cable.

A type of cable containing twisted-wire pairs that are not only individually insulated, but also surrounded by a shielding. Requires the cable to be grounded via an aditional wire in the cable.

Composed of pairs of wires twisted around each other in specific intervals. No additional shielding around pairs of wires.

The cable is protected from the elements, as the cable is buried into the ground. Often filled with gel to repel water. Shielding in the STP protects against interference.

The area above the ceiling tile for the HVAC system and usually also used to run network wires. Traditional cable is Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and not safe against fires. Fire-Rated Cable Jackets to be used inside this space include Fluorinated Ethylene Polymer (FEP) and Low-Smoke PVC.

The two color codes used for wiring eight-position RJ45 modular plugs. Neither is better than the other. Many organizations use the second one.

HighSpeed: 480 Mbit/s. 5 meters maximum length.

Used to configure telephone and networking equipment. Commonly used for RS-232 (the serial connector that kinda looks like VGA).

High-speed serial connector created by Intel and common on Apple computers. Thunderbolt 2 has a maximum of 20 Gbit/s of throughput via aggregated channels and operates through a mini-DisplayPort. Thunderbolt 3 has a maximum of 40 Gbit/s of throughput via aggregated channels and operates with a USB-C connector. Both these standards have a maximum of 3 meters with copper cabling, and 60 meters with optical cabling.

Digital video connector in packetized form. Carries audio and video. Compatible with HDMI and DVI (with an adapter).

Single & Dual-link Video. Single = 3.7 GB/s & Dual = 7.4 GB/s. DVI-A (analog), DVI-D (digital), DVI-I (integrated) - both analog and digital possible.

DB-15 (aka DE-15) connector. Blue color. Analog only signal. Image degrades after 5 to 10 meters.

Uses serial signals to transfer data. SATA 1.0 = 1.5 GB/s. SATA 2.0 = 3 GB/s. SATA 3.0 = 6 GB/s. SATA 3.2 = 16 GB/s. 1 meter max cable length.

Designed to string up to 16 devices on one cable. LUN (Logical Unit) are defined within each ID. SAS (Serial Attatched SCSI) devices have no jumpers, terminators, or settings.

A hard drive whose disk controller is integrated into the drive, eliminating the need for a controller cable and thus increasing speed. Originally called PATA (Parallel AT Attatchment).

A phone line connection/port found on modems, telephones, and house phone outlets. 6 position, 2 conductor (6P2C).

A connector on an Ethernet cable, containing four twisted pairs of wires. Resembles a telephone connector, but slightly wider. 8 Position, 8 Conductor (8P8C).

Most common coaxial cable connector which features a screw on attatching mechanism. Uses DOCSIS.

A type of connector used by fiber-optic cables and can be used with either single-mode or multimode fiber-optic cables. Connector does not support full-duplex transmissions and is not used on the faster fiber-optic systems.

A small form-factor fiber-optic connector. Uses a 1.25 mm furrule, half the size of the alternative connector.

A panel of data receptors into which twisted pair wire is inserted, or punched down, to complete a circuit.

Smaller than a standard USB and used usually for mobile devices to charge and pass information.

This connector is used by portable electronic devices, such as digital cameras and some portable storage devices.

24-pin double sided USB connector. Smaller than USB-A, micro and miniUSB connectors. Used for USB, Thunderbolt, and other technologies.

4 pin power connector used by optical drives, hard drives, and case fans. Keyed to prevent it from being inserted into a port improperly. Provides +12V and +5V.

The proprietary Apple connector used on Apple iPhones, iPods, and iPads for power and communication. Slowly being replaced by USB-C.

A type of connector with nine pins that’s used in serial communcation and conforms to the RS-232 standard. Built for modem communcation. Now used as a configuration port.

A swap file contained on a computers storage that is used to swap unused app data to system storage to free up RAM.

The type of RAM used in laptops. It is a much smaller form factor than regular DIMMs.

Max 16GB per DIMM. Twice the data rate of previous generation.

Max 64GB per DIMM. Speed increases over previous generation.

Faster data travel between motherboard and memory. Still max of 64GB per DIMM.

Chips in this RAM check for data defects and corrects errors on the fly. Looks identical to memory without this feature but must be motherboard compatible.

Dual-channel, triple-channel, and quad-channel. Memory amounts and RAM speed should always match, with the same RAM sticks for each channel being the best. Memory module slots are often colored differently. Maximizes throughput.

The most common type of drive in computers. It includes spinning platters and read/write heads. Can come in 5.45, 3.5, 2.5, and 1.5 inch form factors, with 3.5 inches being most common for desktop computers and 2.5 inches for laptops. Speed to latency (RPM/MS). 5,400rpm (5.55ms), 7,200rpm (4.16ms), 10,000rpm (3ms), 15,000rpm (2ms).

Non volatile memory, meaning there are no moving parts. Faster than HDDs. Communicate over SATA, NVMe, and PCIe. Typically 2.5 inch drives but can also come in the M.2 form factor.

Communicates either through SATA or NVMe (PCIe). Different connectors on drive (B, M, or B+M). Slots that use AHCI (SATA controller) wont always support NVMe. Quickly replaced mSATA.

Use flash memory, typically Electronically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROMs). Limited number of writes allowed. You can always read the information. Also used in memory cards, like SD, microSD, miniSD, CompactFlash, xD, etc.

Pits and lands which represent 1s and 0s are read with a laser beam to write and read data. CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, and Blu-Ray. Can come in internal or external form-factors.

The most common form factor for PC systems presently in use, originally produced by Intel in 1995.

Used for low power motherboards. Developed by VIA Technologies in 2001 and fits in ATX cases.

An expansion bus architecture that uses serial communcations rather than parallel communications. Adapters and slots can come in x1, x2, x4, x8, x16, and x32 configurations, with the number representing how many lanes are present for communication. The number of lanes actually used for communication may vary as lanes can be shut off if damaged.

24 (or 20+4) Pin Motherboard Connectors. 4, 4+4, or 8 Pin CPU Connector.

A group of small wires running from the front of the computer case to the motherboard. Controls the buttons and LED’s on the case.

Two producers of x86 CPUs for desktops, laptops, and servers. AMD has historically been less expensive. Differences between vendors has become more subtle over the years. Individual motherboards are only compatible with CPUs from one vendor or the other.

Has space for multiple CPUs to split the load. Typically has 4+ memory slots.

Small and light. CPU is usually limited in speed, utilizes thermal throttling to control temperatures, and has a limited ability to interchange or upgrade parts such as RAM, Storage, CPU, GPU, etc.

Enable and disable hardware. Modify boot order for connected drives. Controls what happens when your computer starts.

The program a CPU uses to start a computer when it is turned on. Extremely outdated. Written in 16 bit code.

Based on Intel’s EFI (Extensible Firmware Interface), designed to replace legacy BIOS. Capable of providing the same capabilities of the BIOS but with a graphical user interface with full mouse support. It also can provide better security, boot from networks, and can even run programs like anti-virus.

Enable/Disable USB ports through the BIOS. For example, the Department of Defense disabled all USB ports on their systems for 15 months after a malware attack.

A chip on a motherboard that holds an encryption key required at startup to access encrypted data on the hard drive. Windows Bitlocker Encryption can also use this to encrypt the drive itself. Can be used to encrypt passwords and other sensitive data. Required to install Windows 11.

UEFI feature that prevents a system from booting up with drivers or an OS that are not digitally signed and trusted by the motherboard or system manufacturer. Boot-loader must contain signature from secure boot.

BIOS setting that makes it so the system will not boot up without a password. Similarly, makes it so that you can not make changes to the BIOS without a password. Can typically be cleared by removing the CMOS battery.

Cryptographic module that can generate cryptographic keys. Provides secured storage for servers. Lightweight ones can come in Smart Card, USB, etc., form factors. Cryptographic accelerators can be used to offload CPU cryptographic functions onto it from server.

Can be either 32-bit, which is designed for 32-bit x86 processors or 64-bit which is designed for 64-bit x64 (aka x86-64 or AMD64) processors. A 32-bit OS cannot run 64-bit apps but a 64-bit OS can run 32-bit apps.

Energy efficient processor design frequently used in mobile devices. Also used in IoT devices.

Refers to the number of processing units a CPU has. Each core may have its own cache or it may share cache with other cores.

Allows multiple threads from a program to run simultaneously. Allows one CPU core can act like two. Can yield a 15-30% increase on average depending on the scenario.

Run other OSs within a single hardware platform. With virtualization acceleration added to the processor, multiple OSs can share physical hardware components. Hardware virtualization is faster and easier to manage. Intel Virtualization Technology (VT) and AMD Virtualization (AMD-V).

Device that can be slotted into a PCI slot to allow the use of audio components. Multiple I/O types, like SPDIF and 3.5 mm jacks.

Processes video and graphics data. Dedicated cards offer improved performance over CPU-integrated graphics.

Sends a video signal to a computer so that the signal can be recorded and saved to storage. PCIe internal capture cards can have high performance and can enable the capture of 4K 60fps content.

Layout, location, and size matter. 80mm, 120mm, 140mm, and 200mm are most common fan sizes. Fans can come in a variety of speeds and sounds (and even colors and with LED lights).

Passive cooling systems with metal fins to dissipate heat through a thermal conductor, like copper or aluminium alloys. Thermal paste is used to create even contact between the chip and this device.

Coolant is circulated through a computer just like it would be in a car too cool an engine. Used in high-end systems and servers. Can be used to cool CPUs and GPUs. Involves the use of a radiator and fan to cool the liquid and bring that cool liquid to the CPU/GPU, which heats up the liquid. This heated liquid is then returned to the radiator for cooling.

W = A * X or W = I * X (both A and I mean Amps)

High-Speed Memory found on the CPU’s front-side bus.

Oldest type of RAM that requires frequent refreshing and is typically faster than other types.

Converts AC to DC power and vice-versa. Can be found in older LCDs to convert DC voltage to the AC required to use the CCFLs (cold-cathode florescent lamps).

A card that plugs into a motherboard and allows for expansion cards to be mounted parallel to the motherboard. Expansion cards are plugged into slots on the riser.

A measurement of the brightness of light, such as the light emitted by a display or projector.

Projection distance for a projector. Useful to know in order to properly pick out an appropriate connector that suits the layout and size of the room.

A common safety precaution for a projector when it has been used for a long period of time and needs to cool. If this occurs when the projector has only been powered for a short period of time, check the filter to see if it is clogged and overheating the projector.

Uses tiny mirrors to create the projected image.

Legacy port used for GPUs of the past. Sometimes seen in the field to this day. Includes AGP 1x, AGP 2x, AGP 4x, and AGP 8x.

The ability to insert the CPU without pressing down and applying pressure on it yourself. Simply position the CPU and use the cover and lever to put it into place.

A command used to display and modify the TCP/IP configuration information for a network interface (in macOS + Linux).

Pay for software as you use it. Not installed locally, instead it is “hosted” on a server, like Google Docs.

No on-site servers, software, maintenance team, or HVAC. Someone else handles the platform, while you handle the development.

Your own virtualized local data center.

Available to everyone over the Internet.

A mix of public and private solutions.

Several organizations share the same resources.

Sometimes called Hardware as a Service (HaaS). The equipment is outsourced. You are still responsible for the management and security of it, though.

You pay for what you use, such as the cost to upload, cost of storage, and cost of downloads.

Network error where a port transitions rapidly between up and down states.

AKA Dot Matrix Printer, good for printing multiple copies of text at once, but has limited graphics capabilities. Uses ribbons to hold the ink, which is then “punched” by the print head that holds tiny wires called print wires. These wires hit the ribbon which then hits the page. Only printer than can do multi-part forms using paper/forms and supports the 132-column paper needed in some industries. Noisy.

Quiet and produces high-quality graphics, especially when compared to impact printer. Uses an ink cartridge that can cost $10-$60. Best for color printing. Works with an inkjet print head which has tiny nozzles that squirt ink onto the paper. Each nozzle is smaller than a human hair and each cartridge can have up to 6,000 nozzles.

Produces the highest-quality output at the fastest rate. Uses a toner catridge that can cost $20-$350 dollars. Common in the corporate environment. Used for graphic design and computer-generated art where high-quality printing is a must. Some can produce color but at a much higher cost.

Uses special thermal paper that is sensitive to heat. An image is created where the heat is applied. Commonly used as ticket printers or receipt printers in retail outlets, movie theatres, and gas stations.

Used to create 3-D objects using various types of materials such as plastics, resin, filament, thermoplastics, clay, alloys, rubber, stainless steel, and metal alloys.

The number of dots per inch that a printer outputs. The higher it is, the better the quality of the inkjet or laser printer output.

Step 1 of the laser printing process. Gets the data ready to print. The laser printer converts the data from the printer language into a bitmap image. The laser printed page is made up of closely spaced dots.

Step 2 of the laser printing process. Also known as conditioning, as it conditions or gets the drum ready for use. Before any info goes onto the drum, the entire drum must have the same voltage level. The primary (main) corona or conditioning roller has up to -6,000VDC applied to it and anywhere from -600V to -1000V applied to the drum surface as a uniform electric charge.

Step 3 of the laser printing process. Also known as the writing phase, puts 1s and 0s on the drum surface. Light reflects to the drum surface in the form of 1s and 0s. Every place the beam touches, the drums surface voltage is reduced. The image on the drum is nothing more than dots of electrical charges and is invisible at this point.

Step 4 of the laser printing process. Gets toner onto the drum, which develops an image. A developing cylinder or roller is inside the toner cartridge (right next to the drum) and contains a magnet that runs the length of the cylinder. When the cylinder rotates, toner is attracted to the cylinder because the toner has iron particles in it. The toner receives a negative electrostatic charge. The magnitized toner particles are attracted to the places on the drum where the light beam strikes. The image is now black on the drum surface.

Step 5 of the laser printing process. Transfers an image to paper. A transfer belt, or transfer roller, corona, or pad, is located at the bottom of the printer and places a positive charge on the back of the paper. The positive charge attracts the negatively charged toner particles from the drum. The particles leave the drum and go onto the paper. At this point the image is on the paper, but it’s only held on by the magnetic charge.

Step 6 of the laser printing process. The fuser assembly melts the toner onto the paper. Heat and pressure make the image on the paper permanent. The paper, with the toner particles clinging to it, immediately passes through fusing rollers or a belt that applies pressure to the toner. The top roller applies intense heat (350˚F) to the toner and paper that literally squeezes and melts the toner into the paper fibers.

Step 7 of the laser printing process. Wipes off any toner left on the drum. Some books list this as the first step, but the order does not matter because the process is a continuous cycle. During the cleaning stage, a wiper blade or brush clears the photosensitive drum of any excess toner. Then an erase lamp neutralizes any charges left on the drum so the next printed page begins with a clean drum.