Dominance Approach

Women have an inferior social position and men dominate women
Reflected in language use

- 1975
- Investigated interruptions, turn-taking and silences between sexes
- Studied conversations in public places in same-sex or cross-sex groups

- Same-sex = same interruptions and overlaps
- Cross-sex = 96% interruptions-male and 100% overlaps-male
- Females used most silence (but shorter duration)
- Males used delayed, minimal responses
- Female minimal responses during or straight after speech
- Females don't complain when interrupted

- Differences in turn-taking mirror differences in society's economic system
- Males assert an asymmetrical right to control topics
- Men prevent equal status to conversation partner
- Men control macro and micro institutions

+ Pps kept anonymous
+ Natural conversation
+ Consent gained after
- Pps were white, middle-class and 20-35 years old
- Ethical issues
- Varying relationships

- Wrote *Man Made Language* - 1980
- Part of Dominant Approach

- Male superiority justifies male power
- Males still seen as superior
- Language is how we classify the world (we are mislead)
- *Language is that of the male-as-norm*
- Standard humans are male and anything else is separate
- 2 human groups: plus male and minus male
- Female status derived from male status
- Dividing by genitalia allows for male supremacy

Pamela Fishman 1983
Janet Holmes 1990s
Schulz and Lakoff

Taped daily conversation of 3 young American couples
52 hours

Women asked 263/370 questions

Asking questions used to start and continue dialogue
Inferior role
So used more by women

- Investigated compliments on TV shows
- Investigated affectionate nominatives for women

*TV show compliments*:
Women give 70% and receive 75%
Men give other men compliments 10% of the time
Women complimented on appearence
Men complimented on possessions/ability
*Affectionate nominatives*:
Often food/animals

-ess marks feminine equivalents
Semantic derogation

Words which gained negative connotations over time (eg. mistress)