ATI TEAS 7 Science (In-Depth)

Front or forward-facing side of the body. It's the side you'd see when looking at a person directly from the front.
Example: Nose is anterior to the ears.

The back or rear side of the body. It's the side you'd see when looking at a person from behind.
Example: Spine is posterior to the chest.

Structures closer to the midline of the body, i.e., closer to the imaginary line that divides the body into equal right and left halves.
Example: Nose is medial to the eyes.

Structures farther from the midline of the body or towards the sides of the body.
Example: Ears are lateral to the eyes.

A position above or higher than another part of the body.
Example: Eyes are superior to the mouth.

A position below or lower than another part of the body.
Example: The mouth is inferior to the eyes.

In relation to the point of attachment of a limb to the body, proximal means closer.
Example: Shoulder is proximal to the elbow.

In relation to the point of attachment of a limb to the body, distal means farther away.
Example: Fingers are distal to the wrist.

Facilitates the exchange of gases by providing the body with OXYGEN (O2)and eliminating CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2). Additionally, FILTERING, WARMING, and HUMIDIFYING the air as it flows through the system.

Nasal cavity
Pharynx (throat)
Larynx (voice box)
Trachea (windpipe)
Tronchi (large airways)
Bronchioles (small airways)

Transporting air from the outside environment to the site of gas exchange.
It also refers to "Anatomical Dead Space" since no gas exchange occurs in this area.

Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveoli

Structures within the lungs where gas exchange occurs.

1. Inspiration: Air drawn INTO lungs (Inhalation)
2. Expiration: Air push OUT from lungs (Exhalation)

1. Diaphragm muscles & External Intercostal muscles CONTRACT *diaphragm descends;*rib cage rises.
2. Thoracic cavity volume increases

1. Diaphragm muscles & External Intercostal muscles RELAX (diaphragm rises; rib cage descends)
2. Thoracic cavity volume decreases

Filter, Warms, & Humidifies Air
Plays a role in smell

Air passageway between nasal cavity and larynx

Contain Vocal cord "Laryngitis" - Loss of Voice
Regulate air and food to proper channels

Cover trachea to prevent food from entering the airway

Air passage between larynx and bronchi
Cleans and warms air

Main air passage between trachea and lungs

Lead air to alveoli

Where O2 - CO2 gas exchange

Movement of air in & out of the lungs (breathing)

Delivering blood to the body's tissues, organs, and cells

Slow Breathing:
Increased CO2 (hypercapnia)
Decreased O2 (hypoxia)
= Decreased PH (acidic)

Fast Breathing:
Decreased CO2 (hypocapnia):
Increased O2 (hyperoxia)
= Increased PH (basic)

Encloses heart, provides lubrication, contains 5-20mL of pericardial fluid.
Outer membrane: Parietal pericardium.
Inner membrane: Visceral pericardium, directly attached to heart.

Epicardium: outermost layer of the heart.
Myocardium: middle layer of the heart, the contracting muscle of the heart.
Endocardium: innermost layer of the heart, lines the inner chambers, and the valves.

Atrioventricular: Tricuspid(right) and Mitral Valve(left)
Semilunar: Aortic(between left ventricle and aorta) and Pulmonary Valve(between right ventricle and pulmonary artery)

Close to impede the backward flow of blood into the atria during ventricular contraction. These valves prevent the regurgitation of blood.

Close to impede the backward flow of blood into the ventricles during relaxation.

Carries deoxygenated blood from the body back to the right atrium
1. Superior Vena Cava/ Inferior Vena Cava
2. Right Atrium
3. Tricuspid Valve
4. Right Ventricle
5. Pulmonic Valve
6. Pulmonary Artery

Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the body
7. Pulmonary Vein
8. Left Atrium
9. Bicuspid / Mitral Valve
10. Left Ventricle
11. Aortic Valve
12. Aorta

ARTERIES - Transport oxygen-rich blood to the tissues
- "AORTA: Arteries Oxygenate and Reach Tissues Alive."
VEINS - Return deoxygenated blood back to the heart
- "VERB: Veins Efficiently Return Blood."

SA Node
AV Node
Purkinje Fibers

Right Atrium of the Heart.
Beats between 60 - 100 bpm

Between the atria and ventricles.
Beats between 40 - 60 bpm

Extend from bundle branches to ventricles.
Beats between 20 - 40 bpm

Systole: corresponds to the heart's contraction
Diastole: heart's relaxation

The heart pumps blood into the arteries as the atrioventricular valves close, resulting in the characteristic "lub" sound.

Heart chambers fill with blood as blood flows into the heart, and the semilunar valves cause the distinctive "dub" sound.

1. Delivery of O2 and nutrients, removal of CO2 and waste.
2. Regulate Body Temperature: Increased temp -> blood vessels dilate, decreased temp -> blood vessels constrict.
3. Maintain Blood Pressure: high blood pressure damages arteries, low pressure impairs blood flow.
4. Maintain Blood PH: high PH = alkalosis, low PH = acidosis.

1. Heart Rate
2. Contraction
3. Elasticity
4. Blood volume
5. Vessel Diameter

An increased heart rate leads to higher blood pressure, as the heart pumps blood more frequently, resulting in increased force against the arterial walls.

Stronger and more forceful contractions of the heart can raise blood pressure by increasing the volume of blood being pumped with each heartbeat.

Maintains blood pressure by allowing arteries to expand and recoil, propelling blood forward, and maintains continuous flow even when the heart is momentarily at rest.

An increase in blood volume, through fluid retention or excessive fluid intake, elevates blood pressure by increasing the overall volume of blood circulating in the vessels.

Vasoconstriction: narrowing of the blood vessels, leading to increased resistance and higher blood pressure
Vasodilation: widening of the blood vessels, reduces resistance and lowers blood pressure

The process of ingesting food involves the utilization of salivary amylase, an enzyme that aids in breaking down the food particles before swallowing.

Transports food from the mouth to the stomach.

Storage of food until it's transported into small intestine.
Food is mixed with gastric secretion (hydrochloric acid) to form a paste.
Protein digestion.
Absorption of Fat-Soluble Chemicals.

Produces various enzymes, such as amylase, lipase, and proteases, which aid in the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

Produces bile to break down fat. Removes toxins.
Stores vitamins and minerals.

Store the bile produced by the liver.

Excretion of waste.

(Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum)
The primary location for the absorption of most molecules, excluding lipids which are absorbed into the bloodstream through lacteals, is the small intestine.

(Cecum, Colon, Rectum, Anal Canal)
Absorption of residual vitamins, water, & electrolytes.
Propels food toward the anus.

Process of taking food into the body, typically through the mouth. It is the first stage of digestion.

Physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces. It begins in the mouth with mastication (chewing) and continues in the stomach through churning.

Food moves through the digestive tract by processes like swallowing and peristalsis (muscle contractions).

Breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can be used by the cells. It starts in the mouth with salivary amylase and continues in the stomach and small intestine with various enzymes.
Gastrin, Secretin, Cholecystokinin (CCK), and bile.

Process by which the digested nutrients are taken into the bloodstream, typically in the small intestine.
Insulin and glucagon.

Final stage of digestion is where indigestible waste products are expelled from the body.

Hormone released by the stomach that stimulates the secretion of gastric juice, a mixture of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen, which activates into pepsin under acidic conditions to break down proteins.

Released by the duodenum whenit detects fats and proteins.It stimulates the gallbladder to release bile,
which helps in fat emulsification and digestion, and the pancreas to secrete enzyme-rich pancreatic juice.

Released by the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine, in response to low pH (acidic gastric juice). It stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice, which helps neutralize the acid.

Essential for fat digestion and absorption, but it also carries waste products, including bilirubin (a product of red blood cells breakdown), cholesterol, and toxins, into the feces.

Key hormones involved in regulating blood sugar levels. After carbs are broken down into glucose, it's absorbed into the blood, leading to an increase in blood sugar. This triggers the release of insulin from the pancreas, which allows glucose to be taken up by the body's cells.
When blood sugar levels are low, glucagon is released, stimulating the conversion of stored glycogen into glucose in the liver.

The nervous system decodes sensory and motor signals, subsequently issuing directives via neurons, which act as information couriers.

Sensory Interpretation (temperature, taste, & touch)
Spatial & Visual perception
Interprets Language

Vision
Image Interpretation

Posture
Balance
Coordination
Speech
Learning
Motor
Behaviors

Problem-Solving
Decision-Making
Personality
Behavior & emotional regulation
Speech production

Auditory interpretation
Memories (facts & events)
Language comprehension

Heart Rate
Breathing
Blood Pressure
Relay center for transmitting messages between the brain and spinal cord
Sleep & Wakefulness

Logical reasoning
Analytical processing
Language skills
Detail- and fact- oriented
Math & numbers

Spatial abilities (sense of direction, distance, and relationship between objects)
Creativity and artistic skills
Emotional processing (interpretation of facial expressions & body language)

Largest part of the human brain, divided into 2 hemispheres & 4 lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital).
Ultimate control & information.
Processing centre.

Motor control
Habit formation
Decision making
Reward system
Voluntary movement & learning new tasks

-Controls maintenance functions (body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, & mood)
-Helps govern endocrine system
-Release hormones from pituitary gland
-Linked to emotion and reward

Master endocrine gland

Motor movement, particularly movements of eyes, in auditory & visual processing

Message stations between the cortex & the cerebellum
Regulating sleep & arousal
Control breathing & sensations (hearing, taste, balance)

Axon fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

Relays messages (sensory & motor inputs) between lower brain centers & cerebral cortex
Involved in consciousness, sleep, & aletertness

Acts as the major output tract of the hippocampus

Linked to memory & learning (particularly for formation of new memories)
Spatial navigation

Key role in emotions (particularly related to fear & stress)
Involved in formation of emotional memories

Coordinates & supports memories of voluntary movement & balance

Regulate & controls autonomic functions (heart rate, blood pressure, breathing)
Enables the right side of the brain to control the left side of the body & vice versa

Pathway to neural fibers traveling to & from brain
Controls simple reflexes

Consists of the brain and spinal cord. Main control center for the body, where sensory information is received, & motor control is initiated.

The PNS includes all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.
Connects the CNS to the rest of the body, allowing communication between the brain and the external and internal environments.
Divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Control:
-Voluntary Actions
-Sensory
-Body Movement
Sensory Input:
Afferent/Sensory Nerves (Arrives to CNS)
Motor Output:
Efferent/Motor Nerves (Exits the CNS)

Parasympathetic Nerves:
"Rest and Digest"
-Conserves energy & restores body to calm state
-Decreased HR, BP, constricting pupils, & stimulates digestion
Sympathetic Nerves:
"Fight or Flight"
-Burst of Energy to respond to danger
-Increased HR, BP, dilating pupils, & slow digestion

The muscular system serves the purposes of enabling body movement, supporting posture, ensuring joint stability, and producing heat for the body.
It is composed of three distinct types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles.

Location: Walls of hallow organs (esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, urethra, and blood vessels)
Functions:
-Involuntary movement (flow of blood)
-Propulsion of food in the GI tract, and contraction of the bladder
Appearance: Spindle-shaped (wide in the middle & tapered at the end) with no striations (stripes)

Location: Found only in the heart
Functions:
-Involuntary Movement
-Contract and relax to pump blood throughout the body
Appearance: Branching cells that fit together at junctions called intercalated discs. Single nucleus (sometimes two) with striations

Location: Attached to bones of the skeleton
Functions:
-Voluntary Movement
-Maintains body posture and generates heart to maintain temperature
-Walking, writing, and talking
Appearance: Long, cylindrical, multi-nucleated cells that are packed with parallel fibers
-Striated appearance

Fundamental property of muscle tissue that enables tension and produces force
Muscles shorten and contract in response to a stimulus

Muscle responds to stimuli (typically neural)
Triggers a reaction that leads to muscle contraction
Can be voluntary or involuntary

Returns muscle to its original length and shape after contraction or stretching

Responsible for producing & releasing eggs for fertilization. If fertilization occurs, it supports the development of an embryo in the uterus.It also produces hormones like estrogen and progesterone, which regulate the menstrual cycle and support pregnancy.

Pair of small, oval-shaped organs that produce eggs & hormones

Pair of long, thin tubes that carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus

Pear-shaped organ that houses & protects a developing fetus

The canal that connects the uterus to the vagina & is a passage for sperm, menstrual fluid, & childbirth

Long, cylindrical organ that carries blood & mucosal tissue from the uterus; passageway for intercourse &a child during childbirth

Endometrium: The inner lining of the uterus, where implantation of a fertilized egg occurs.
Myometrium: The middle, muscular layer of the uterus wall, responsible for uterine contractions during childbirth.
Perimetrium: The outermost layer of the uterus, providing protection and support.

1. Gonadotropin-releasing (GRH)
2. Follicle stimulating (FSH)
3. Luteinizing (LH)
4. Estrogen

Produced in the hypothalamus, triggers the pituitary gland to release FSH and LH, which control the production and release of eggs in the ovaries.

Produced by the pituitary gland, FSH stimulates the growth and maturation of follicles in the ovaries, each of which contains an egg.

Produced by the pituitary gland, LH triggers ovulation and stimulates the production of estrogen and progesterone in the ovaries.

Produced by the ovaries, is responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics and the regulation of the menstrual cycle and reproductive system.

Produces & delivers sperm to fertilize the female's egg during sexual intercourse, while also producing male sex hormones, primarily testosterone, which governs the development of male sexual characteristics and fertility.

Pair of oval-shaped organs that produce sperm and testosterone.

Long, coiled tube that stores & transports sperm.

Long, thin tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.

Pair of sac-like structures that produce a fluid that nourishes the sperm.

Small, round organ that produces a fluid that helps to transport the sperm.

Long, thin tube that transports sperm & urine (from bladder) to the outside of the body.

Long, cylindrical organ that carries urine & sperm out of the body.

1. Gonadotropin-releasing (GRH)
2. Follicle Stimulating (FSH)
3. Luteinizing (LH)
4. Testosterone

Produced in the hypothalamus, GnRH controls the release of FSH and LH from the pituitary gland, which are crucial for sperm production and testosterone synthesis.

Released by the pituitary gland, FSH stimulates the production and maturation of sperm in the testes.

Produced by the pituitary gland, it stimulates the Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone.

Produced primarily in the testes, testosterone is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, spermatogenesis, and influences male behavior.

Consisting of the skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and oil glands, serves as a barrier to protect the body from external environmental
factors like pathogens and harmful sunlight.

The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin that acts as the body's primary barrier against environmental hazards.

Come: Stratum Corneum
Let's: Stratum Lucidum
Get: Stratum Granulosum
Sun: Stratum Spinosum
Burnt: Stratum Basale

Keratinocytes: Produce keratin, a protective protein that gives skin its strength, flexibility,& water-resistant properties.
Corneocytes: Dead skin cells are flat, hard,& water-resistant, providing a protective barrier.
Melanocytes: Produce melanin, a pigment that gives color to the skin, hair, & eyes.Melanin also helps protect the skin from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

The dermis is the middle layer of the skin located beneath the epidermis, composed of tough connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands.

Skin's elasticity and strength
Nourishes the epidermis
Contains nerve endings for touch, pain, and temperature

Also known as the hypodermis, is the deepest layer of the skin, composed largely of fat and connective tissue. It acts as an insulator, helping to regulate body temperature and cushioning the body against external forces.

Very: Vitamin D synthesis
Important: Immunity
Skin: Sensation
Protects: Protection
and: assisting in excretion
Regulates: Regulation of body temperature

Specialized tissue type that forms central and peripheral nervous system. Primarily composed of neurons, the cells responsible for transmitting nerve impulses, and glial cells, which provide support and protection for neurons.
Function: Receive stimuli from body's internal/external environment, interpret signal, and coordinate body response
Location: Brain, spinal cord, and nerves

Transmits electrical signals (impulses) across the body

Glial Cells: Support cells of the nervous system, providing support and nutrients

One of the major types of tissue in the human body & is specialized for contraction.
Function: Provide movement and force generation for either moving the body or moving substances through the internal organs
Location: Skeletal muscle cover skeleton, smooth muscle like in the digestive tract, & cardiac muscle in the heart

One of the primary tissue types & serves as a barrier and interface between the body and its external environment. It comes in several shapes, including squamous, cuboidal, & columnar cells.
Function: Protection, secretion, absorption, filtration, and sensory Location: Internal and external surfaces of organs, glands, and body surface

Flat and thin to help with the passive diffusion of gases. Found in the air sacs of the lungs and the lining of blood vessels.

Cube-shaped cells found in glands & the lining of kidney tubules that aid in secretion and absorption.

Taller than they are wide. Found in organ linings with high absorptive functions, like the intestine

Diverse group of tissues that provide support and structure to the body. It includes several types, such as proper connective tissue, cartilage, bone, & blood.
Function: Provide support and structure of the body, bind and connect tissues together, protect and insulate organs, transport substances, and store energy
Location: Throughout the body

Includes both loose (areolar, adipose) and dense (tendons, ligaments) tissues. It fills spaces between organs, provides cushioning, and supports epithelial tissues.

Firm but flexible tissue that provides cushioning and support to various structures like the ear, nose, and joints.

Also known as osseous tissue is a hard, rigid tissue that forms the skeleton. It provides structural support, protects vital organs, and serves as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus.

Fluid connective tissue that carries oxygen, nutrients, waste products, and various cells and proteins throughout the body.

plays a crucial role in maintaining the body's internal balance, or homeostasis, by producing & secreting hormones into the bloodstream.
These hormones regulate various bodily functions, including metabolism, growth & development, tissue function, sleep, mood, & responses to stress and injury.

The process that amplifies the change in the given direction
Example: Release of oxytocin during childbirth

The process that reverses the change or slows it down
Example: Release of insulin in response to high glucose (blood sugar) levels

Role in growth and development

-Regulates metabolism (thyroxine)
-Growth and development

Regulates levels of calcium (parathyroid hormone)

Determine natural biological cycles and sexual behaviors

-Regulation of glucose (blood sugar) levels
-Metabolism of lipids and proteins

-Regulates heart operations & blood vessel size
-Elevates glucose (blood sugar) levels

-Regulates glucose levels (raises and lowers)
-Breakdown and utilization of carbohydrates

Primary function is to remove waste products & E excess substances from the blood, forming and excreting urine from the body. It helps maintain the body's fluid balance & electrolyte levels, contributing to overall homeostasis.

Each human kidney contains about 1 million to 1.5 million. Functional units responsible for filtering blood and producing urine.

P- WASTE:
-Pressure control (blood pressure regulation)
-Water balance regulation
-Acid-Base balance (pH regulation)
-Salt (electrolyte) regulation
-Toxin removal
-Erythropoiesis regulation (stimulates RBC formation)

Bean-shaped organ that filters waste products, toxins, & excess substances from the bloodstream

Outermost part contains portions of the functional units called nephrons, where initial stages of filtration occur.

Inner part contains cone-shaped structures (renal pyramids) creates urine through reabsorption & secretion.

Muscular tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder

Muscular sac that serves as a reservoir for urine, storing it until the body is ready for its elimination

A fluid that has been processed by the glomerulus through glomerular filtration. It contains water, glucose, amino acids, urea, & various ions that have been forced from the blood into the Bowman's capsule due to pressure. This forms the initial step of urine production.

Process that occurs primarily in the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, and distal convoluted tubule of the nephron, where useful substances present in the filtrate, such as water, glucose, and essential ions, are returned back into the bloodstream. This helps the body to retain necessary substances and regulate its fluid balance.

Selective transport of certain substances from the blood back into the tubules of the nephron. Primarily takes place in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. The kidneys excrete substances like hydrogen ions and potassium ions, thus playing an essential role in maintaining the body's pH balance and electrolyte homeostasis.

Blood flows into the kidney at 120 mL/min
Water, electrolytes, and small molecules are filtered in the glomerulus (larger molecules stay in the bloodstream)

Fluid moves through the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, and distal convoluted tubule.
Fluids and substances are reabsorbed into the bloodstream.

Fluid moves through the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts. Substances are selected and transported into the tubule. Regulation of blood pH and volume takes place.

Adults void between 1-2 L/day with no less than 30 mL/hr

Plays a crucial role in defending E the body against disease by producing, storing, & transporting white blood cells, specifically lymphocytes, that fight off infections and diseases. It maintains body fluid levels and absorbs fats from the digestive tract, contributing to the body's overall homeostasis.

Acting as a physical barrier, skin prevents pathogens from entering the body.

Traps pathogens in mucus and cilia move the trapped pathogens out of the body.

Secretions, like sweat and sebum, contain antimicrobial substances that inhibit pathogen growth.

The acidic environment created by these secretions in the stomach kills many ingested bacteria and viruses.

The normal flora outcompetes harmful bacteria for resources, helping to prevent infection.

First line of defense produces lymphocytes & traps pathogens entering through the mouth or nose

Produces T cells, helping defend against pathogens and cancer cells (most active during childhood & adolescents)

Produces new blood cells, including immune-responding lymphocytes.

Filters blood, removes old cells, & houses lymphocytes.

Stores beneficial bacteria, aiding in immune responses post-infection by replenishing the gut microbiota.

Filters lymph, traps harmful substances & produces immune cells.

This is temporary immunity acquired through the transfer of antibodies from another individual or organism, such as the antibodies a baby receives from its mother through the placenta or breast milk.

Long-lasting immunity that the body develops after exposure to a disease-causing organism, or through vaccination, where the body's immune system responds by producing its own antibodies.

-Neutrophil
-Lymphocyte
-Monocyte
-Eosinophil
-Basophil

Most abundant type of white blood cells and are the body's first responders to bacterial infection

Play a vital role in the body's immune response, with subtypes including B cells that produce antibodies and T cells that destroy infected cells.

Cells differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells to help control microbial infections.

Primarily deal with parasitic infections and play a role in allergic reactions.

Release histamine during allergic reactions and help to enhance the inflammatory response

Adaptive immunity, also known as acquired immunity, is the part of the immune system that develops as a response to exposure to pathogens. Unlike the innate immune system, which is general and non-specific, adaptive immunity is highly specific to a particular pathogen. Once the immune system has responded to a disease, it can "remember" it, allowing for a faster and stronger response to future encounters with the same disease.

Also known as killer T cells, directly attack and destroy cells infected with pathogens.

Signaling proteins released by cells, especially helper T cells, that mediate and regulate immunity and inflammation

These cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, ingest and break down pathogens, presenting the antigens to T cells to initiate an immune response.

Substances (often proteins) on the surface of pathogens that the immune system recognizes as foreign; triggering an immune response.

Produced by B cells that can bind to specific antigens, neutralizing pathogens or marking them for destruction by other immune cells.

Upon interacting with APCs, these cells produce cytokines, which help coordinate the immune response by stimulating other immune cells, including B cells and cytotoxic T cells.

Long-lived cells that remember a specific antigen and allow the immune system to respond more quickly and effectively to future encounters with the same pathogen.

Provides structural support for the body, facilitates movement by working with the muscular system, and protects vital organs such as the brain, heart, and lungs. Additionally, it is essential for producing blood cells in the bone marrow and for storing and releasing minerals like calcium and phosphorus.

Located along the central axis of the body (80 bones)
Includes the skull, the vertebral column (spine), the rib cage, and the sternum
Primary function: Protect the central nervous system and the organs in the chest

Bones of the limbs (arms and legs), pelvis, and shoulder area connect the limbs to the axial skeleton (126 bones)
Primary function: Movement and locomotion.

-Blood cell production
-Organ protection
-New attachment site for muscles
-Extra storage for minerals
-Structure of body support

Immovable joints primarily found in the skull, providing strength and stability, such as the sutures between cranial bones

Slightly movable joints that provide both stability and mobility, such as the symphysis pubis or the joints between vertebral bodies in the spine.

Freely movable joints permit a wide range of movements and found in the limbs, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder joints

Shape: Longer than they are wide
Functions: Facilitate movement
Examples: Femur, tibia, and humerus

Shape: Roughly cube-shaped
Functions: Support & stability with little movement
Examples: Bones in the wrist (carpals) & ankle (tarsals)

Shape: Thin and flat
Functions: Protects internal organs & muscle attachment
Examples: Sternum, ribs, and skull

Shape: Complex
Functions: Variety of functions
Examples: Vertebrae & some facial bones

Shape: Small, round bones embedded in tendons
Functions: Protect the tendon
Examples: Patella

Dense, hard outer layer of bone provides strength, protection, and a conduit for the passage of blood vessels and nerves

Porous, honeycomb-like structure on the inside of bones offers strength yet lightness and contains the bone marrow

Mesh-like structure that provides internal support within the bone

Resides in the interior cavities of bones and is responsible for the production of blood cells (red marrow) and fat storage (yellow marrow)

Also known as Osteogenesis Imperfecta, this is a genetic disorder characterized by bones that break easily, often from little or no apparent cause, due to a defect in the production of collagen, a protein that helps make bones strong

-Kingdom: Highest, general level
-Phylum: Share traits
-Class: Group of similar orders
-Order: Related families
-Family: Related genera
-Genus: Similar species
-Species: Most specific, able to interbreed

-Organisms (Complex)
-Organ Systems
-Organs
-Tissues
-Cells
-Chemicals/Organelles (Simple)

Individual living entities made up of 1 or many cells
Examples: human beings are complex multicellular organisms

Groups of organs working together to perform complex functions
Examples: cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels to circulate blood throughout the body

Composed of two different types of tissues that perform specific functions
Examples: heart (tissues of pumping), connective tissue for structure, and nerve tissue for electrical signaling

Groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific functions
Examples: muscle tissue, made up of muscle cells, contracts to cause movement

Basic structural and functional units of life
Examples: a neuron is a specialized type of cell found in the nervous system that transmits electrical impulses

Basic building blocks of matter
Examples: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, & nitrogen, and compounds like water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, & nucleic acids

Semi-permeable barrier that surrounds the cell, controlling the passage of substances in and out

Gel-like substance inside the cell where most cellular activities occur such as protein synthesis in a skin cell

Involved in modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins & lipids for transport, similar to a post office within a cell

Contains enzymes to break down waste materials & cellular debris in a cell, acting like a cell's waste disposal system

Generate the energy needed for cellular activities by converting nutrients into ATP

Cell's genetic material (DNA) and controls the cell's growth & reproduction

Sites of protein synthesis, reading the RNA copies of genes & assembling amino acids into proteins

Plays a role in protein synthesis & quality control, making sure proteins are correctly folded

Involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification of harmful substances, such as drugs or toxins.

Stores water, nutrients, and waste products

-Interphase
-Prophase
-Metaphase
-Anaphase
-Telophase

The cell grows, duplicates its DNA, and prepares for cell division, essentially a 'resting' phase between active divisions

Genetic material inside the nucleus condenses and the duplicated chromosomes become visible, like the first step in the sequence of a cell's physical division.

Cell's chromosomes align in the middle of the cell, preparing for separation, akin to runners lining up at the start of a race.

Paired chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell, much like pulling on two ends of a piece of string to stretch it out.

Final stage where the separated chromosomes form new nuclei at each end of the cell, leading to the cell's split into two daughter cells, like the finish line of a race.

Packaged form of DNA and proteins, which carry genetic information and are crucial for cell division

Prokaryotes, like bacteria, typically have a single circular chromosome, whereas eukaryotes, like humans and dogs, have multiple linear chromosomes stored in a nuclear membrane.

Most human body cells (somatic cells) contain 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs, where one of each pair is inherited from each parent.
For example, a skin cell would contain 46 chromosomes

The sex cells (sperm and egg in animals) carry half the number of chromosomes, one from each pair, to be combined upon fertilization.
For example, a human egg or sperm carries 23 unpaired chromosomes.

Specific sequences of DNA that serve as the basic units of heredity, instructing cells how to make proteins and other molecules essential for bodily functions.

Approximately 20,000 to 25,000 genes which are located on the 23 pairs of chromosomes in a cell's nucleus.

code for the production of specific proteins, such as enzymes or structural proteins.
For example, the gene COL1A1 in humans codes for the production of type I collagen, a protein crucial for the strength and flexibility of tissues like skin and bone.

Regulatory genes control the activity of other genes, turning them on and off as needed.
An example is the p53 gene in humans, often described as the "guardian of the genome" because it regulates the cell cycle and thus functions as a tumor suppressor.

The genetic material that contains genes that are coded with instructions to produce proteins in the cell. DNA is made up of two long chains of nucleotides that twist to create a double helix.

-Adenine (A): Plays a crucial role in the production of energy and the formation of key biomolecules.
-Thymine (T): Helps maintain the structure of the DNA helix
-Guanine (G): Involved in protein synthesis and cell signaling
-Cytosine (C): Helps maintain the structure of the DNA helix

A sequence of three nucleotides that code an amino acid. There are a total of 64 possible codons with 61 that code amino acids and 3 used as "stop signals" at the end of a gene.

A molecule similar to DNA. It's crucial for taking the genetic information in DNA and using it to produce proteins.

in RNA, Uracil (U) replaces Thymine (T) found in DNA, pairing with Adenine (A) to form the characteristic base pairs of this molecule

Process by which the genetic information stored in a section of DNA is copied into a complementary RNA sequence, enabling the transfer of this information from the DNA (in the nucleus) to the protein synthesis machinery in the cell's cytoplasm.

Process that decodes the mRNA produced in transcription to produce a specific protein. This occurs in the ribosome, where tRNAs bring corresponding amino acids to match the codons on the mRNA, forming a peptide chain that eventually folds into a functional protein.

Carries the genetic code from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, serving as a template for protein synthesis.

tRNA transports specific amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis, matching them to the appropriate codons on the mRNA

Forms the major structural components of the ribosome and plays a crucial role in protein synthesis, aiding in the correct alignment of mRNA and the tRNAs carrying amino acids

One that will express itself when present, whether it's in a pair with another dominant gene or a recessive gene. Example: genes for brown eyes (B)

Only expresses itself when it's paired with another recessive gene. If it's paired with a dominant gene, the dominant trait will be expressed. Example; genes for blue eyes (b)

The genetic makeup of an organism determines the characteristics that can potentially be passed on to the next generation.

The observable physical traits of the organism

Genotype, where the two genes in a gene pair are different.
Example: 'Bb'. In this case, the individual carries one of each variant of the gene

Genotype, where the two of the same gene in a gene pair.
Example: Either dominant ('BB') or recessive ('bb'), Carry two copies of the same version of a gene

1. Identify parent's genotype
2. Set up punnett square
3. Split genotype
4. Fill in the squares
5. Analyze results

When neither gene variant in a pair fully dominates the other, resulting in a new, blended phenotype
Example: Pink flowers from a cross between red and white ones

Both gene variants in a pair are equally strong, and both get expressed in the phenotype
Example: Brown and cream color cow offspring from an all brown and all cream color parents

Genes that have more than two possible variants
Example: ABO blood group systems, where A, B, and O alleles exist

Characteristics that are influenced by multiple genes, leading to a wide range of phenotypes
Example: Human skin color, which varies on a spectrum rather than in distinct categories

Large, complex molecules that are fundamental to the structure & function of living organisms. They encompass proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids, playing roles in energy storage, structural support, and genetic information storage.

Chemical reaction where two molecules join together, resulting in a larger molecule, with the loss of a water molecule
Example: When two glucose molecules join together to form maltose, a water molecule is released
-"building by removing water"

The breaking down of a large molecule into smaller ones by adding a water molecule
Example: when a protein is digested, it is broken down into its constituent amino acids through hydrolysis
-"breaking down with water"

Organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar solvents. They play essential roles in energy storage, insulation, and cell membrane formation.
Fats, oils, and waxes.
Examples: cholesterol & triglycerides

Genetic material of cells involved in the storage and transmission of genetic information.
Examples: DNA and RNA

Organic molecules, primary energy sources and serve structural purposes.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
Examples: glucose & cellulose

Complex macromolecules that play critical roles in the body, including structure, regulation, function; acting as enzymes, antibodies, and transport carriers.

Body's main form of longterm energy storage made up of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid chains.

Type of lipid that is highly waterproof and forms protective coatings on plants and the feathers of some birds.

Main components of cell membranes.

Characterized by a carbon skeleton with four fused rings.

These are complex carbohydrates made of many monosaccharides. Examples include starch and cellulose.

These are carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharide units. Examples include sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar).

The simplest form of carbohydrates is often called simple sugars. Examples include glucose and fructose.

Straight-chain form of certain carbohydrates, such as cellulose

Carbohydrates with side chains branching off the main chain, like glycogen, the storage form of glucose in animals

Certain polysaccharides, such as amylose (a component of starch), can form a helical structure

Carry molecules from one place to another in our body. Hemoglobin is an example, which transports oxygen in the blood.

Proteins that act as biological catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions in the body including amylase in saliva that helps break down starches into sugars.

Store essential nutrients, like ferritin that stores iron in our bodies

Provide support in our bodies and include collagen in the skin and keratin in hair and nails.

Or microbes, are minute organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye and encompass a diverse range of life forms including bacteria, viruses, protozoans, fungi, and microscopic animals.

Single-celled prokaryotic organisms that come in various shapes and sizes, found in almost every environment on Earth. Some are harmful pathogens, while others play vital roles in ecosystems, such as decomposers or aiding in human digestion.

Multi-cellular organisms like mushrooms as well as single-celled yeasts. They play essential roles in decomposition and nutrient cycling, though some can cause infections or produce toxic compounds.

Unique infectious agents that are not technically living organisms, as they require a host cell to reproduce. Viruses can infect all forms of life and cause various diseases, like the common cold or more severe diseases like HIV/AIDS or COVID-19.

Single-celled eukaryotic organisms are similar to animals in their nutritional needs. Protozoans can be free-living or parasitic, & some cause diseases like malaria or giardiasis.