Lab exam one

- large population, no immigration/emigration, no mutations , random mating, no natural selection

caused by an infection of the single called plasmodium parasite. It is transmitted from one human to another by female anopheles mosquitoes

is a single cell, alveolite apicomplexans, they are parasites that infect a host, they have no cell wall

occurs when a small of group individuals becomes separated from a larger speciation

when 1 allele reaches a frequency of 1 in a population and the other allele is lost, so 100% of the population is homozygous for the fixed allele, will eventually lead to a smaller population 100 to nothing (0)

•Having one copy of HbS confers a resistance to malaria.
•3 Phenotypesenotypes: having the sickle cell traitor makes you resistant to malaria
- HbA/HbA= normal hemoglobin, NO malaria resistance
- HbA/HbS=sickle-cell trait, resistant to malaria
-HbS/HbS=individual with sickle-cell anemia, NO malaria resistance
•- The positive control is labeled "+" and will show a homo­ zygous HbS/HbS genotype for sickle-cell anemia.
•- The negative control is labeled "-" and will show a homozygous HbAHbA genotype for normal hemoglobin
- Homozygous samples have one band.
-Heterozygous samples have two bands.
-Normal hemoglobin is smaller than sickle­ cell hemoglobin and travels farther from the well.
•Please familiarize with the calculations/frequency. (# OF SICKEL CELL ALLELS/TOTAL # OF ALLELS)

First Equation: p + q = 1
p is the frequency of one allele – usually the dominant allele
q is the frequency of the other allele for a single gene – recessive allele
These represent the allelic frequencies. Second Equation: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
p2 = the frequency of the homozygous genotype for one allele
q2 = the frequency of the homozygous genotype for the other allele for a single gene.
2pq = the frequency of the heterozygous genotype
These represent the genotypic frequencies.

exchange of genes between two populations (same species), mutations are a source of variation

allows deleterious alleles to survive due to the heterozygous genotype having a survival advantage over either of the homozygous genotypes
- Today’s example: Sickle-cell Anemia & Malaria

Ingroup: The group of related organisms you are currently studying. outgroup: A closely related organism or group that doesn’t belong to your ingroup
▪Used for comparison
▪Branches off earlier than the group we are interested in (always the first branch on the cladogram)
▪Has all ancestral traits for the characteristics you are interested in (may also have its own unique new traits)
▪Is NOT the ancestor!

character– an observable trait of an organism that has different
•character states (e.g., presence or absence or number of something). presence- 1. absence- 0

▪New, derived character state
▪Present in all species after it develops, but not in those that branched off prior to its development
▪Comes in 2 varieties:
▪Autapomorphy - derived character state that belongs to a single taxon
▪Synapomorphy - derived character state shared among taxa

bacteria: membrane layer of peptidoglycan, circular DNA. archaea: branched membrane lipids, circular DNA. eukarya: nucleus, chloroplast/mitochondria, introns in genes, linear DNA. prokaryotes in more detail: cell wall, smallest living thing, less DNA,

subgroup foraminifera: unicellular, mostly marine plankton
• feed with threadlike pseudopodia
• porous shells (tests) of calcium carbonate. subgroup radiolaria: unicellular marine plankton
• feed with threadlike pseudopodia • symmetric silica “skeletons”

magnification: eye piece x objective lens (4x, 10x, 40x, 100x)

Important players in each of the main nutrient cycles and perform oxygenic photosynthesis.
•Some colony members are important nitrogen-fixers and have specialized cells called heterocyst used for nitrogen-fixation.
•May survive harsh environments through the production of spore-like cells called akinetes.

The two taxa that split from the node . They are called sister taxa because they are like the siblings from the parent or ancestor. The sister taxa must each be more closely related than to any other group because they share a close common ancestor.

Character and character state – (either presence or absence)
** length, width, height, weight aren’t good characters, and we usually not include them

convergent evolution
the process whereby distantly related organisms independently evolve similar traits to adapt to similar necessities.
Examples: bat and insect wings, shark and dolphin bodies, and vertebrate and cephalopod eyes.
Analogous structures arise from convergent evolution, but homologous structures do not.

Divergent evolution
accumulation of differences between closely related populations within a species, leading to speciation.
Example: Galapagos finches

Variable sites - contains at least two types of nucleotides or amino acids.
Conserved sites - A site that is not variable. contains the same nucleotide in all species in the study.

Nucleotide translate into amino acid as a
Triplet/codon.
More variation can see in nucleic acid

Fertilization is when the sperm nucleus joins with the egg. Pollination occurs when the pollen grain is transferred (by wind or animals) to the part of the seed plant that contains the ovule.

liverworts, hornworts, mosses

lycophytes: club mosses, quillworts. pterophytes: whisk ferns horsetails, ferns. seed plants(spermatophytes): gymno/angio sperms

Plants alternate between two different life stages, or generations, in their life cycle; a haploid stage called gametophyte and a diploid stage called sporophyte.