memory

He improved on task
Could remember how to do it
Had no memory of actually doing the task
H.M had most of his hippocampus surrounding brain tissue surgically removed to reduce epileptic seizures. the operation succeeded but it left him with anesia or memory loos. he can discuss his childhood, teens and early 20s but has forgotten some events that occured within the two years prior to the surgery and lost his ability to make new memories. once an experience or memory leaves his train of thought he cannot remembers it anoymore. he can learn and remember how to perform new tasks but every time he encounters the taks he swears he has never seen them before.

the processes that allow us to reocrd and later retrieve experiences and information

encoding, storage and retrieval

getting information into the system by translating it into a neural code that your brain processes. encoding is like what happens when you type in a computer keyboards, as your keystrokes are translated into an electrical that the computer can understand and process

involves retaining information over time. once in the system, information must be filed away and saved as happens when a computer stores information on a hard drive

a way of pulling out information out of storage when we want to use it

Sensory memory
Working or short term memory
Long term memory

holds incoming information just long enough for it to be recognized. composed of sensory registers with are the initial information processors
Briefly holds sensory information
Iconic stores visual information- lasts fractions of a section
Echoic stores- auditory information- lasts about 2 seconds, partial trace can last longer
Sensory registers are initial information processors

holds the information we are conscious of at any given time. also referred to as workin memory because it consciously processes, codes and works on information
Temporarily holds limited amount of information
Stores and processes information of which we are conscious
Working memory codes and works on information

our vast library of more durable stored memories

Temporary and long lasting
***(multiple choice question)Does not correspond to specific brain structures

Touch, taste, smell or hear something
In our brain there is a sensory register that starts the process of encoding
Encoding means gives it meaning
Turning it into neuron communication
We much engage in what is called rehearsal
Rehearsal is repeating it
If it does not get rehearsed a lot it goes to short term memory
It if is rehearsed a lot it goes to long term memory
Phone numbers are long term memory

Mental representations/memory codes various forms
Images (visual), sounds (phonological), meaning (semantic), action (motor)
Does not correspond to form of original stimulus
Errors often phonetic
Confuse words or letters that sound alike
How we remember does not have to match how we experience it

Magical number= 7+2
5-9 meaningful items
Digit span task

Chunking
Combining individual items into larger units of meaning
Most effective when chunk is meaningful
MRCCHIRNSERC
Researcher who applies for grants
MRC CHIR NSERC have meaning
For others NHLCFLNBA
NHL CFL NBA may be meaningful
Shelf life of 20 seconds for information
Rapidly lost unless we actively do something with it

Maintenance rehearsal- simply repeating
Elaborative rehearsal- interpret it, give it understanding, focus on meaning, more effective

Short term memory as working memory
Mental workspace
Stores information, actively processes it, supports problem solving and planning
Used for solving problems such as:
Adding 2 numbers, visual map of a route

Phonological loop- auditory storage
Visual spatial sketchpad- store of mental images and spatial information
Central executive- directs attention, recall from LTM, integration of input, involvement of prefrontal cortex

Library of durable stored memories
Storage capacity unlimited
LTM can endure for a lifetime
want to be remembered among a list of speakers (or students presenting their work)
Distinction between short term and long term memory seen in serial position effect
Presented with unrelated words
Recall as many as you can

Two components
Primary and recency effect
Superior recall of early and most recent words- primacy effect
Information transferred to long term memory- recency effect
Information still in short term memory
Effect diminished if time delay before recall
More effective encoding into LTM= greater likelihood of retrieval
Effortful processing- intentional and conscious, studying for this course
Automatic processing- unintentional and requiring minimal attention, recalling what you did yesterday

Depth of processing increases recall
POTATO- is a word in capital (structural)- shallow
Horse- does it rhyme with course? Phonological - deeper
TABLE- does it fit in sentence "the man peeled the ___ (semantic)- deepest

Organizing information in way that is meaningful can enhance memory
Scheme serves as cue for retrieving information
Hierarchy- memory is enhanced by associations, enhances understanding of how elements are related
Chunking- combining items into larger units of meaning

Makes information uniquely organized for individual
Hierarchies- relating items
Chunking- combining items
Acronyms- creating easier to recall items

Dual coding theory- memory enhanced if it uses both verbal and visual codes. Method of loci- use imaginary physical environment and placement of images
More difficult with some stimuli- easier with concrete objects with abstract concepts

Schemas- a mental framework, organized pattern of thought
Create perceptual sets- help to organize and interpret information
Development of expert knowledge- process of developing schemas. E.g chess players, coaches, musicians and psychology students
Experts rely on perceiving 'meaning' in a pattern

Associative networks- network of associated ideas and concepts. Each concept represented by 'node' nodes tightly clustered for highly related concepts
Spreading activation- activation of one concept activates other concepts- priming

Consider the following:
What is your birthday?
Use the word justice in a sentence
Stand up and throw a ball

All call upon long-term information you have but each is different:
Some is unique to you
Some is general to all of us
Some require physical movement

Episodic
Personal experiences (episodes of your life)
Semantic
General factual knowledge

Non-declarative memory
Reflected in skills and actions
Some classically conditioned responses

Explicit- conscious or intentional memory retrieval
Implicit memory- memory influences behavior but not conscious awareness, priming tasks, shown list of words- include STORE- not required to consciously remember them. Later shown STO- respond store and not stork=implicit memory

Multiple and self-generated cues: stimuli that lead to activation of information stored in LTM
Multiple cues lead to better retrieval- involves deeper processing
Self-generated cues- have personal meaning

Retrieval of distinctive events- greater chance of etching vivid, clear long term memories, weddings, deaths, births
Flashbulb memories- vivid and clear recollection, like a snapshot in time
Clear or foggy- often inaccurately recalled

memory enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those present during encoding
Stimuli associated with event may be encoded as part of event
E.g. exams written in the same lecture hall as where the lecture was delivered

Context dependent memory- easier to remembers something in the same environment where encoded
State-dependent memory- ability to retrieve better when internal state at retrieval matches that at encoding
Mood-congruent recall- tend to recall information or event congruent with current mood

3 broad strategies
External aids
General strategies
Mnemonic devices

Elaborative rehearsal- understand it
Link to other information- make it meaningful
Organize information- textbooks organized with chapters and outlines
Overlearn- continued rehearsal
Distribute learning over time- cramming the night before is not good
Minimize interference

Encoding failure- lack of attention, lack of deep processing
Failure to encode details that are not important to us

Decay of memory trace- long term physical trace in nervous system fades away over time and with disuse
Interferences theory- information forgotten because other items in LTM impair ability to retrieve it

Interference theory
Proactive interference- past material interferes with recall of newer material
Retroactive interference- new information interferes with ability to process it
Tip of the tongue state- on verge of remembering but can't recall

Motivated forgetting- based on Freudian concepts. Consciousness or unconscious processes? E.g. repression of anxiety arousing memories
Controversial- difficult to verify

Retrograde amnesia- memory loss for events before amnesia
Anterograde amnesia- memory loss for events after amnesia
Alzheimer's disease- severe retrograde and anterograde amnesia

Memory loss for early childhood experiences
Typically for events before ages 3-4
Immature brain, encoding failures

Retrospective memory- memory for past events

Prospective memory- remembering to perform activity in future

Changes in prospective memory- evidence is mixed, elderly=some difficulty with time signaled tasks

We do not use rewind button to activate memories
Memory is a constructive or reconstructive process
Piece together bits of information in ways that intuitively "make sense"
Often highly inaccurate
Schemas can distort memories

Schemas- general ideas about how events happen
Boundary extension
Remember scenes as being wider
Look at photo
Draw scene
Scene is wider Dual coding theory- memory enhanced if it uses both verbal and visual codes. Method of loci- use imaginary physical environment and placement of images

More difficult with some stimuli- easier with concrete objects with abstract concepts

Can distort children's memories
Younger children more susceptible to misleading and suggestive questions
Observers could not tell false from true reports by children
Not intentionally lyingelieve memory is accurate
Non suggestive interviewing is crucial

Are memories accurate- if accurate what caused memory to be forgotten
Controversial- difficult to demonstrate, consciously forgotten
Full/partial memory loss for traumatic event- accurate memories can return

Search for engram
Engram doesn't exist
Memory stored throughout brain
Engram=physical trace stored in brain when memory formed

Three basic approaches
Human lesion studies
Study memory loss due to brain damage
Nonhuman animal lesion studies
Deliberate damage to brain regions
Brain-imaging studies

Hippocampus- encoding station, convert short term memories to long term
Memory consolidation- binding processing in the brain for where something happened, what the scene or people looked like, sounds heard, meaning of events
Cerebral cortex- encoding information from sensory registers, store semantic information
Prefrontal cortex- involved in functions of working memory
Deep processing increased brain activity in specific regions of left prefrontal cortex

Thalamus- role is unclear, damage results in extensive anterograde and retrograde amnesia
Amygdala- emotional aspects of memory
Cerebellum- procedural memory

Synaptic change- work with Aplysia, structural changes resulted in greater synaptic transmissions
Long term potentiation- LTP= enduring increase in synaptic strength, synaptic connections activated more easily

Emotional memories may be associated with limbic system activity
Increased activity in amygdala and frontal lobes
Accuracy of retrieved memories and moderated by activity in many areas