Development

Cerebrum: Largest part of the brain; responsible for memory, problem solving, thinking and emotions
Cerebellum: Back of the head, under the cerebrum, responsible for balance and coordination

MO: connects the upper brain to the spinal cord and controls automatic responses.
Brain stem: under the cerebrum, in front of the cerebellum, controls breathing digestion heart rate
MO is part of the brain stem

Forebrain: the anterior part of the brain, including the hemispheres and the central brain structures
Midbrain: the middle section of the brain forming part of the central nervous system
Hindbrain: lower part of the brain, includes cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata

When the foetus is about 3 or 4 weeks old, a long tube develops in the brain, which is divided from the front into three distinct round sections. FB, MB, HB B. By 5 weeks old, the forebrain and hindbrain have each split into a further two parts, the forebrain split into an anterior and a posterior forebrain and the hindbrain splits through the middle. The midbrain does not divide.

By 6 weeks cerebellum develops. At 20 weeks the medulla oblongata is formed, which connects the rest of the brain to the spinal cord. From birth to 3 yrs nueral connections are made with 700-1000 new connections forming every second - allow fast communication in the brain. In the first year of the child's life brain doubles

sensorimotor - Birth to 2 yrs
preoperational - 2 yrs - 7 yrs
concrete operational - 7 yrs - 12 yrs
formal operational - 12 yrs+

Birth to 6 months - no understanding of time & space
reflex actions, learning to control movements
navigate through 5 senses and movement
4 months - carry out repeated actions
6 months to 2 yrs - object premanence

2 yrs to 4 yrs - Symblic function
Symbolic play (imitating others using objects)
animism (objects behave as they are alive)
Language development, Egocentric
4 to 7 yrs - Intuitive thought stage
reasoning skills,centration,no conservation, irreversibility

rules and strategies to think, concrete objects (counters)
Seriation, classification, reversibility, conservation, decentration. 7 yrs - 12 yrs

control over own thoughts, think about more than two things at a time, understanding of time/events having a sequence, develop morality, see that actions have consequences

There should be a focus on the child's thinking and not what they can do. It is the processes they use, rather than the right answer, that is important.
Discovery learning is required and children must be able to engage freely with their environment rather than being told facts

Teaching should accept and acknowledge that children do not think like adults and that they develop at different rates.
Children are individuals and go through the stages in different ways, so classrooms must be managed to suit all individual children and whole-class teaching is not advised

Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas
Accomodation: new chemas developed/changed and created as a result of new info
Equilibrium: balance between one's schemas and environment

Practical applications: supports the education system-helps teachers plan activities according to the stage- apply suitable techniques - richard slavin's implications
Supported by studies - Three mountain task

Individual differences - differenct thought processes, pace of learning, depends on personality and nvironment - low ecological validity
Cultural differences - Biased sample (only switzerland) - not generlisable to other cultures - Pierre Dasen found that aborignal children develop conservation at a later stage - no influence of cultural setting and social interactions in Piaget. New research

Fixed mindset: believing your abilities are fixed and unchangeable.
Growth mindset: believing practice and eff ort can improve your abilities.

should be praised for effort rather than ability as they then believe they can achieve something and so they carry on trying. Or else they can think that the ability is not in them and stop taking challenges

- practical applications. Teachers or parents can focus on praising effort, rather than ability, to encourage children
- The theory is positive - shows that change is possible
- Yeager and Dweck's study found that adolescents could deal better with not fitting in if they had a growth mindset. Believing (or being taught) that people can change led to better school performance.

- experiments in artificial settings, not represent real life. results lack validity. exception - Gunderson et al. (2013),
- studies testing mindset theory ignore the effects of giving feedback without any judgment about the child or their ability, such as telling a child to 'add a conclusion to an essay. Constructive criticism and praise

- Factual knowledge preceeds skill
- Importance of practice and effort - rehersal, LTM
- Willingham's learning theory- rather than teaching in the child's preffered style, teach using methods suitable for the context
- Memory and forgetting
- Self regulation - control emotions - Praise
- Neuroscience - Children with mental health given extra support in learning

Cognitive development
teachers should use problems that are new and within a students ability but also require some effort.
Understand a student's likely stage of development when planning activities
remember that a student's abilities are variable and can change from day to day
consider factors other than developmental level. For example, the student might not understand the task

Physical development
focus on what movements will be suitable and in what order they need to be carried out
practise the movements in that order enough times to make the muscle commands automatic
use conscious effort, make changes in order to develop the motor skill, the bar when developing jumping skills.

Demonstrate appropriate social behaviour
Encourage practice which requires self regulation
Delaying giving a child a reward for a task to encourage them to keep working

supported by evidence - Betty Rapochali & Alison Gopnik - young children were not as egocentric as Piaget thought - disagree with PIaget and agrees with willingham - we all develop at different times

Real work applications - education system - used for teaching and learning - cognitive development

Application to neuroscience - diagnosis of brain dysfunction may not always be possible - if not diagnosed the capability and ability of the child can be questioned

Aim: To investigate ego centrism in children and see in what age children begin to decenter

100 children were studied, no Children under 4 years old - too young for the task, model of three mountains
10 pictures of the model were taken from different positions, wooden doll placed at different positions
the child was shown 10 pictures of the model and asked to pick out the picture that represented what they could see from different positions and the doll could see from different positions.

Children in the pre-operational stage years chose pictures showed their own view even if asked to show the doll's view.
7-9 years the child starts to understand that others looking from a different position can see the model differently.
By 9-10 years, children can understand that the doll has a different view in a different position
Qualitative data and included observations about individual children in their report.

Children up to 7 years old were egocentric. (children in the pre-operational stage were egocentric, children in the concrete operational experience decentration)
Study provided evidence for developmental stages ie Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

Qualitiative data - behaviours of the chil - details suggest if they are close to the next stage
LAb experiment - controlled environment 0 standardised procedure - easily replicated - high reliability and validity
Large sample - 100 Ps high generlisability

Lab experiment - highly controlled envornment - demand characterisitcs - investigator's effects - low ecological validity
Low reliability - Helen Broke's study in more realistic setting had different findings - Used puppet Grover - 3 yrs could give correct answers - she said P/I was too difficult

1) To see if children are affected by different types of parent praise given in a natural setting.
2) To see If parents give less process praise and more person praise to girls and than boys
3) To see if the influence on the child's view later on due to parents' use of process or person praise in early childhood

● 29 boys and 24 girls, with their caregivers
● 64% white, 17% African-American, 11% Hispanic and 8% from multiracial backgrounds.
● looked at parents' use of praise at home when their children were 14 months, 26 months and 38 months old.
● Five years later, the children's ideas about behaviour were measured and related to the type of praise they had received.
● Researchers looked at a child's gender and influences of the type of praise on later ideas.

● 3% of all parental comments to the child were praise
● Process praise was 18%
● Person praise was 16%.
● 24.4% of praise for boys was process praise compared to 10.3% for girls
The more process praise there is in early childhood, the more likely the children (when older) will believe that putting effort in is worthwhile.

● A clear relationship was found between parents' use of process praise and a child's later use of an incremental motivational framework (ability being changeable).
● There are gender differences in the way each gender is praised.
● Boys tended to have more incremental frameworks than girls, which fits with the findings of other studies that girls tend to attribute failure to ability more than boys do.

Large sample - . 64% white, 17% African-American, 11% Hispanic and 8% multiracial backgrounds - wide range of cultures - representative of the whole society, unbias - can be generalized to explain behaviors of people from different cultures and backgrounds - high ecological validity.
natural environment -looked at parents' use of praise at home - realistic and valid result, no demand characteristics and investigator's effects - high in ecological validity

- Experimental design - overt observations - parent's know that their comments and praise are being observed - Parents may have changed their style of praise because they were being observed slight changes in their normal behaviour. data lack validity.
- Ethics of the study could be criticised. The participants were deceived. They were told the study was about child development, but in truth it was about types of praise and the effect this has on a child. If there was a debrief this may be seen as ethically acceptable.

Refers to what is right and wrong in behaviour can differ between cultures

5 to 10 years, a child believes rules cannot be changed. ideas of morality come from parents and teachers. they tend to focus on an action's consequences. breaking the rules leads to punishment, so they obey the rules. This stage is 'heteronomous' (directed by others).

10 years old, a child knows that the intentions of the action are important. A child understands that it can be right to change rules to benefit others and if everyone agrees. Morals are seen as agreed between people. This stage is 'autonomous' (the individual decides)

Stage 1/2 (aged up to about 9 years old) - believes rules cannot be changed. It is the consequence of the action - whether there is punishment or reward - that makes it a good or bad action. Stage 1 focuses on the child obeying in order to avoid punishment. Stage 2 is about self-interest and, including what benefit can be gained from moral actions.

(most young people and adults) Stages 3 and 4: the young person or adult sees themselves as a good member of society. Reasoning comes from group norms. Stage 3 is about being seen as 'good' and conforming to social rules - wanting to be liked. Stage 4 is about maintaining social order by obeying authority, which is a duty

Stages 5 and 6: own ideas about what is good and bad. moral principles that are universal . Stage 5: laws being social contracts which individuals enter into, so there can be differences in morality between individuals according to which laws they have agreed to. (Democracy) Stage 6: understanding that moral reasoning is abstract and there are universal ethical principles that 'must' be followed. This stage emphasises right and wrong actions beyond individual laws.

W- Both Piaget and Kohlberg used stories that were artificial and might not represent real thinking (lack ecological validity). no real consequences in the stories from the decisions that were made.
W- Carol Gilligan criticized Kohlberg, saying his male-only sample meant his theory was about male morality (Heinz)
S- Kohlberg - takes into account the environment - conventional stage - supports nature