memory

*Atkinson and Shiffrin’s*, information flows through the system in a liner way, structural model stating that Sensory, STM and LTM are separate unitary stores.

how we process information- changing it into a suitable form so it can be stored.

the amount of information that can be held in memory

*Sperling* shown a grid of 12 symbols for 1/20seconds, tone was played, High tone-> recall top row, medium tone-> middle row, low tone-> bottom row. findings: 3/4 symbols on the line—> 76% of information retained, UNLIMITED

*Baddeley*, list of words in 4 categories- Acoustically similar, Acoustically dissimilar, Semantically similar, Semantically dissimilar, ppts were asked to immediately recall, Made most mistakes on acoustically similar, STM CODES ACOUSTICALLY

LIMITED. *Miller*- digit span technique, showed strings of unrelated numbers that increased by one digit every time. until they couldnt recall in correct order. Ppts could recall 5–9 items.

18-30 SECONDS. ppts were briefly presented with a consonant trigram (HDF). then, they were given a 3 digit number and were asked to count backwards from this number to prevent rehearsal. They were stopped at different intervals (3,6,9,12,15,18) and asked to recall the consonant trigram . after 3 seconds—>80%, after 18 seconds—> less than 10% recalled

procedure is the same as in STM. 4 categories, ppts asked to recall 20 mins after each presentation.Made the most mistakes on semantically similar list

UNLIMITED. *Bahrick*, tested 392 American high school graduates aged 17-74 on their memory of their former classmates. condition one- recall names with a photo yearbook, condition two- recall names with no photo cues. Condition 1- 70% of ppts recalled accurately after 48 years, condition 2- 30% recalled accurately after 48 years

case study of clive wearing. Suffers from amnesia where he cannot transfer info from his STM to his LT. Example w his wife reentering the room. SUPPORTS MSM because it shows that info flows in a linear way ( First to STM then to LTM), HOWEVER, low population val.

Shallice and warrington

TOO SIMPLISTIC. Shallice and warringtons research into STM conducted on patient KF who suffered from amnesia, found that KF’s recall in STM for digits was very poor when read aloud to him but recall was much better when KF could read the digits himself. Suggests there must me diff stores within STM, therefore going against the assumption of STM being a unitary store.

responsible for knowing HOW to do things, i.e memory of MOTOR SKILLS such as riding a bike, NON-DECLARATIVE. Area of the brain responsible is the CEREBELLUM & MOTOR CORTEX.

responsible for storing KNOWLEDGE about the world. E.g meaning of the words such as ‘love’ and general knowledge facts. DECLARATIVE, NOT TIME STAMPED. area of the brain responsible is the TEMPORAL LOBE.

responsible for storing information about EVENTS. e.g first day of school. DECLARATIVE, TIME STAMPED—> remember when and where we coded these memories. Area responisble is the HIPPOCAMPUS

There is neuroimaging evidence to support that there are diff types of LTM. Ppts were asked to perform diff tasks whilst their brain is scanned by a PET scanner. episodic associated with Hippocampus, procedural with motor cortex and cerebellum, semantic with temporal lobe. SUPPORTS diff types of LTM because they were found in diff areas of the brain, therefore, separate.

CLIVE WEARING. suffers from amnesia so episodic memory was damaged as he couldnf remember some events from his past such as musical education. PROCEDURAL MEMORY still works as he can play the piano. SUPPORTS diff types of LTM as only certain parts of his LTM are damaged , therefore are separate. HOWEVER, low population val.

*Baddeley and Hitch*, explanation of how the STM works. STM is not a unitary store and passive store (like the msm predicts) but actively proccesses information through a number of DIFFERENT STORES, which are ALL CONNECTED but WORK INDEPENDENTLY.

attentional process that decides what needs to be done with incoming data and delegates tasks accordingly to the slave system. codes ANY type of information. takes over the most DEMANDING task where necessary. VERY LIMITED CAPACITY

codes ACCOUSTICALLY, phonologicsl store- stores the words we hear, like an inner ear. Articulatory loop- silently rehearses the words that are SEEN or HEARD, to keep them in memory. LIMITED CAPACITY

codes VISUALLY. Visual information is passed from CE to VSS. responsible for setting up mental images and is what you use if you have to plan a spatial task, e.g GIVING DIRECTIONS. TEMPORARILY stores VISUAL and SPATIAL information.

codes ANY TYPE OF INFORMATION. general store added later by Baddeley and Hitch in 2000. Collects and combines information from the CE, PL and VSS to record an event . EB transfers the information to the LTM and is used to RETRIEVE THE information from the LTM to STM. LIMITED CAPACITY

Two tasks are being conducted at the same time using different slave systems.

opponents argue that much of the research was conducted on the PL and VSS and that there is a lack of clarity over the role of the CE. CE is said to be a single component , some psychologists suggest that the central executive may have several components within it. casts doubt on the validity of WMM.

dual task performance supports the notion separate components within the STM. *Baddeley et al* found that ppts had more difficulty performing two visual tasks at the same time ( using a pointer to track a moving light around a screen and imagining a letter ‘F’ and mentally moving the letter) than performing one visual task and an a verbal task at the same time such as saying ‘the’ repeatedly . supports WMM bcz both visual tasks are competing for limited fapacity of the same slave system, whereas diff ones are used and performance is not reduced . Therefore, credibility of WMM is increased.

forgetting occurs due to two lots of info, coded at diff times becoming confused in the LTM

*McGeoch & Mcdonald* gave ppts a list of 10 adjectives to learn (list A), once they learnt it they were given a 10 minute break where they needed to learn a second list of words (List B)(This is interference). Were asked to recall list A. found if list B was similar meaning words to list A- recall 12%, if different- recall 26%

suggests forgetting occurs when information is still in LTM but cant be accessed due to a lack of memory cues.

*Godden % Baddeley* Scuba divers gives list of words to learn either on land or under water. Asked to recall either in the same setting as they learned or the opposite. Ppts were more likely to forget words if tested in opposite locstion

forgetting occurs do to a lack of internal curs to trigger recall because a persons internal physical or emotional state is different to when info was coded .

*Goodwin et al* Male volunteers learn list of words either drunk or sober. 24 hours later asked to recall in either the same state or opposite. More likely to forget if tested in opposite state. Supports dtate dependent forgetting because lack of internal memory cues

45 American students split into 5 groups of 9. video of car crash, ‘About how fast were the cars travelling when they X each other?’ the blank was euther contacted , hit, bumped, collided or smashed. measured ppts speed estimates. Smashed—> 40.8 mph contacted—>31.8

*Gabbert et al* watched a vid of a girl stealing money from a wallet. ppts tested either individually (control) or in pairs (co-witness group). Ppts in co-witness were told that they watched the same vid, but they acc saw diff perspecitves only one person actually saw her steal. Co-witness discussed the crime tog. everyone completed a questionnaire. 71% witnesses who discussed mistakenly recalled info that they didnt acc see. 60% witnesses who didnt see claimed the girl was guilty

*Johnson and Scott*. two conditions, hugh anxiety or low anxiety. ppts told to wait outside the rook before the experiment began. high anxiety—> ppts heard argument, glass break and a man with a bloody knife come out. low anxiety—> man walks out with grease on his hands and a pen. Ppts had to identify the person from 50 photographs . 49% accuracy for low anxiety and 33% for high anxiety.

interviewed 58 real lkfe witnesses of a bank robbery , some had been directly threatened (bank teller- high anxiety) and other were bystanders (customers-low anxiety), directly threatened had significantly better memories than bystanders

to evaluate anxiety as a factor affecting EWT Yerkes dodsons law can be used. anxiety and EWT is not a simple relationship. diff levels of anxiety affect the accuracy of EWT. too little or too much can result in poor EWT recall, however in the middle of these two points accuracy of EWT is high. This explains the diff in results between johnson and scott and christianson an hubinettes. May suggest that ppts in christianson and hubinette were at optimum level of anxiety—> more accurate EWT. whereaes ppts in J&S study maybe have been less anxious due to it being an experiment—> less accuracye EWT. therefore RESOLVES contradiction and validates that anxiety does affect EWT.

technique used by police to interview witnesses after they have seen a crime to get the most accurate and detailed memory possible

-recall everything, - context reinstatement, - recall in reverse order, -recall from changed perspective

*Fisher*. Reported results of 50 lab experiments that compared coginitive interview w standard interview. In these studies ppts were shown film of a staged crime . then either a cognitive/standard interview was given. Ppts wjo received cognitive interview recalled 25-100% MORE correct info than standard interview ppts. supports the effect of cognitive interview as a way to improve EWT cuz more effective. However, research by *Koehnken et al*suggests that although MORE INFO is REMEMBERED in cognitive (81%) often MORE INCORRECT ITEMS are recalled, with a 61% increas of incorrect info reported in cognitive. Known as FALSE POSTIIVES. reducing the effectiveness of cognitive interview

1.time consuming, requires specialist for police interviewers. Also time is needed to establish a rapport w the witness and to let them relax. Weakness because maybe cognitive interview is not used effectibley due to time constraints ,limiting effectiveness of CI in imporving EWT. 2. Diff police forces use the techniques inconsistently. research found that some police forces yse all texhnuques wnd some use only context reinstatment and report everything. Makes it difficult to establish rffectiveness of CI on EWT.