1What is the main purpose of the eye?
Collect and focus light
2Where are neural signals first encoded?
In the eye
3What does light pass through in the eye?
Ocular media
4What are the parts of the ocular media?
Tear film, cornea, anterior chamber, lens, posterior-chamber vitreous
5What allows for no light distortion when passing through the cornea?
Transparency
6What parts of the ocular media focus light?
Tear film, cornea, and lens
7How is light focused in the tear film and cornea?
Fixed manner
8How is light focused in the lens?
Accommodated based on depth of the object viewed
9What are responsible for accommodation of the lens?
Ciliary msucles
10What is the role of the pupil aperture?
Controls amount of light on retina
11What artery supplies blood to the eye?
Ophthalmic artery
12How are 2D images projected onto the retina?
Upside down and backwards
13What is responsible for turning light energy into electrochemical signals?
Photoreceptors
14What must light move through in the retina before reaching the photoreceptors?
Nerve fiber layer, ganglion cells, amacrine cells, and bipolar cells
15What does RPE stand for?
Retinal pigment epithelium
16Where is the RPE?
Post photoreceptors
17What is the role of the RPE?
Provide structural and metabolic support
Absorb intraocular light
18Why is it important to absorb intraocular light?
Maintains sharpness
19What can hinder the response of photoreceptors?
Saturation
20What are the four types of photoreceptors?
Short, middle, and long cones and rods
21What light do short cones absorb?
Blue
22What light do middle cones absorb?
Green
23What light do long cones absorb?
Red
24What kind photoreceptors can be saturated by natural light?
Rods
25Why can photoreceptor responses alone not determine the colour of a stimulus?
They respond equally to certain wavelengths and intensities
26How is colour determined, if not be photoreceptor responses alone?
Downstream cells compare all PR responses
27Where is the fovea?
Within the macula
28Where is the macula?
In the retina, temporal to the optic nerve
29What does the fovea consist of?
Many cones
30What does the large amount of cones in the fovea allow?
High acuity
31Where are rods dominant?
In the periphery
32What is the pathway of cells in the retina?
Photoreceptors connect to bipolar cells --> ganglion cells
Horizontal and amacrine cells form lateral connections
33What makes a bipolar cell have high acuity?
Only one photoreceptor sends its signals to one bipolar cell
34What kind of cells are ganglion cells?
"On and off" center excitatory cells
35What does the "on/off" center nature of ganglion cells allow?
Edge detection
36What are the three main types of ganglion cells?
Midget, Parasol, and Bistratified
37What are the three main LGN pathways?
Parvocelluar "P" pathway, Magnocellular "M" pathway, and Koniocellular "K" pathway
38What pathway do Midget cells lead to?
Parvocellular
39What pathway do Parasol cells lead to?
Magnocellular
40What pathway do Bistratified cells lead to?
Koniocellular
41Where are midget cells highly concentrated?
Fovea
42What kind of signals do midget cells receive?
Signals from 1PR / bipolar cell connections
43What kind of receptive fields do midget cells have?
Small
44What kind of acuity do midget cells have?
High spatial acuity
45What kind of vision do midget cells have?
Colour and depth perception
46What kind of signals do parasol cells receive?
Multiple PRs / bipolar cell connections
47Where are parasol cells and midget cells equally concentrated?
In the periphery
48What kind of receptive fields do parasol cells have?
Large
49What kind of vision do parasol cells NOT have?
They do not have good spatial resolution or colour
50What kind of vision do parasol cells have?
Edge detection, motion, coarse depth
51What do bistratifed cells project to?
CO blobs
52What is the purpose of bistratified cells?
Maybe colour, pupillary light reflex, and mediation of circadian rhythms
53What is the pathway of axons from the retina to the thalamus?
Travel in nerve fiber layer --> optic nerve, through chiasm and tract --> LGN
54How do foveal axons travel different from periphery axons?
Foveal go directly to the temporal aspect of the optic disc in papillomacular bundle while other move through optic nerve after being separated?
55Where is the optic disc?
Intraocular segment of the optic nerve
56Where is the blindspot, and why does it exist?
In the optic disc
No photoreceptors
57Where does the optic nerve start and lead to?
Exits orbit and enters optic canal
58What part of the nervous system is the optic nerve part of?
CNS
59What physically happens at the optic chiasm?
Axon from the optic nerve split
60Where is the optic chiasm?
Inferior to the hypothalamus, anterior to pituitary
61What is the purpose of splitting axons at the optic chiasm?
Bring together info from each retina that view the same portion of the visual field
62What portion of the visual field does each optic tract contain?
The ipsilateral temporal and the contralateral nasal
63Where does inferior axons in the optic tract lead to?
Lateral and superior leading to medial portions of the visual system
64What does LGN stand for?
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
65What are most synapses on the LGN?
Ipsilateral synapses with 1:1 ratio ganglion to LGN cells
66Where does the magnocellular pathway synapse in the LGN?
Layers 1 and 2
67Where does the parvocellular pathway synapse in the LGN?
Layers 3-6
68Where does the koniocellular pathway synapse in the LGN?
Underneath all the layers
69What is the main function of the LGN?
Relay station; control amount and content sent to V1
70What modulates the LGN?
Layer 6 of the visual cortex
71What is the the Pulvinar?
A thalamic nucleus larger than the LGN?
72Which part of the brain contains the LGN?
Thalamus
73What modulates the Pulvinar?
Layers 5 and 6 of the visual cortex
74Where are the superior colliculi?
In the midbrain
75What is the role of the superior colliculi?
Generate orientating eye and head movements
76What are optic radiations, and where do they extend?
Second-order neurons extending the LGN --> striate cortex
77What is the primary visual cortex also referred to as?
Striate / calcarine cortex
78Where is the striate cortex?
Occipital lobe
79What are the different bundles of optic radiations?
Temporal and parietal radiations
80Where do parietal radiations synapse in the primary visual cortex?
Superior
81Where do temporal radiations synapse in the primary visual cortex?
Inferior
82Where do M and P pathways synapse in the primary visual cortex?
Separate layer 4 sections
83Where do both M and P pathways send inputs to in the primary visual cortex?
Layer 6 for modulation to the thalamus
84Where does the K pathway synapse in the primary visual cortex?
CO blobs in layers 1 and 3
85How are monocular inputs arranged in the primary visual cortex?
Ocular dominance columns
86What is the binocular fixation point the basis of?
Stereoscopic depth cues in V1
87How does the binocular fixation point --> depth?
Objects located in front of or behind have displaced retinal images
88Where is the initial processing of colour?
V1
89Where is the initial processing of brightness?
V1
90Where is the initial processing of motion?
V1
91What allows V1 to be the initial processor of colour, brightness, and motion?
Neurons selective for specific orientation of luminance contrast
92What do higher-order neurons look like compared to those in V1?
Increase RF size and complexity
93What is the "where" pathway?
Dorsal
94What is the "what" pathway?
Ventral
95What does V2 process?
Colour and form
96What is the pathway from V2?
V2 --> V4 --> inferotemporal cortex
97What does the V2 pathway achieve?
Ventral / object processing
98What is the pathway from V2 and V3?
V2 and V3 --> V5 --> medial superior temporal cortex
99What does the V2/V3 pathway achieve?
Doral / motion processing
100Which pathway is faster, V2 object or V2/V3 motion?
V2/V3 motion
101Where is the FFA?
Lateral occipital lobe
102What does LO stand for?
Lateral occipital
103What does FFA stand for?
Fusiform Face Area
104What is the anterior chamber?
Part of eye between cornea and iris
105What is the posterior-chamber vitreous?
Gel-like substance of the eye that maintains shape and helps with vision clarity and shock absorbance
106What is the macula?
The pigmented region in the center of the retina
107What is the papillomacular bundle?
The collection of retinal ganglion cells that carry info from retina to to optic nerve to brain
108What are ocular dominance columns?
Stripes of neurons in the visual system that respond preferentially to info from one eye or the other
109What are examples of high-level visual transformations?
Tranlasation, rotation, tilt, 2D --> 3D
110What cortex do sensorimotor transformations occur?
Parietal cortex
111What cortex is CIP in?
Parietal cortex
112What areas does CIP project to?
LIP, AIP, V6A
113What do the areas that CIP projects to do?
Motor planning and execution
114Which has more high level 3D representations and choice related activity, CIP or V3A?
CIP
115Where are 3D pose representations primarily seen?
CIP
116What is 3D pose?
Orientation and position
117Which has a larger RF, CIP or V3A?
CIP
118Which is more narrowly tuned, CIP or V3A?
V3A
119What does it mean if a neuron has robust 3D tuning?
Higher tolerance values
120What is a perspective cue?
Cues from the projection of the 3D onto the 2D retina (size, speeds, etc.)
121What are MSTd neurons tuned to?
Optic flow and vestibular signals
122How in an experiment can you check for causal links?
Microstimulation and inactivation
123What is optic flow?
Visual cues for motion
124What is the inferotemporal cortext responsible for?
High-level object identity
125What is convolution?
Integral expressing amount of overlap of a function shifted over another
126What is a function?
Rule defining relationship between variables
127What is a derivative?
Rate of change with respect to a variable
128What is an integral?
Mathematic object interpreted as an area
129What are afferent neurons also known as?
Sensory neurons
130What are efferent neurons also known as?
Motor neurons
131Where do afferent neurons travel?
PNS --> CNS
132Where do efferent neurons travel?
CNS --> PNS
133What does the somatic nervous system do?
Voluntary actions
134What does the autonomic nervous system do?
Involuntary actions
135What are the two parts of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
136What is the role of the sympathetic nervous system?
Stimulate / fight or flight
137What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Inhibit / rest and digest
138What is the role of glia?
Support, nutrition, and signal transmission
139What are the different kinds of synapses?
Electrical and chemical
140What is the functional difference between electrical and chemical synapses?
Electrical is faster and keeps sending output
Chemical is slower but more controlled
141What does it means if a signal is excitatory?
Depolarizes the cell
142What does it mean to depolarize a cell?
Make it positive inside
143What type of synapse is most common?
Chemical
144How does drug addiction work?
Drugs block reuptake, resulting in loss of receptors overall
145What type of filters does a fourier transform result in?
Sinusoidal filters
146Which side of the brain contains Broca's area?
Left brain
147What is aphasia?
Damage to Broca's area resulting in limited speech
148What is the central brain known as?
The diencephalon
149What is the role of the cerebellum?
Coordinate muscle activity
150What is the role of the brainstem?
Relay info between body and higher brain regions
151What are the three parts of the brainstem?
Midbrain, pons, and medulla
152What is the role of the midbrain?
Higher level functions
153What is the role of the pons and medulla?
Involuntary motor
154What are the parts of the diencephalon?
Hypothalamus, thalamus, epithalamus, and mammillary body
155What is the fetal equivalent to the two hemispheres of the brain?
Telencephalon
156What is the corpus callosum?
The connecting tissue of the hemispheres
157What sensory functions does the parietal lobe control?
Touch, pain, and pressure
158What are the important sections of the temporal lobe?
Amygdala and hippocampus
159What is the role of the amygdala?
Social / emotional
160What is the role of the hippocampus?
Short term memory
161What is the tradeoff with a wavelet tranform compared to a fourier transform?
Better time and frequency localization for worse frequency resolution
162What do pain receptors release?
K+ or histamine
163What is an effector cell?
Cell that responds by contracting or secreting
164What do muscle and tendon spindles respond to?
Stretching
165What is the role of the autonomic nervous system?
Involuntary / unconscious body control
166What are the two parts of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
167What is the role of the sympathetic nervous system?
Fight or flight
168What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Rest and digest
169Where do sympathetic nerves originate from?
Thoracolumbar area
170Where do parasympathetic nerves originate from?
Craniosacral area
171What are ganglia?
Clusters of neuron cell bodies housing millions of synapses
172Where are sympathetic ganglia?
Closer to spine
173Where are parasympathetic ganglia?
Further from spine
174What is the length difference between sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia?
Sympathetic: Pre ganglia are shorter than post
Parasympathetic: Post ganglia are shorter than pre
175What does the sympathetic nervous system respond to?
Stress
176What is released with stress?
NT and hormones
177How is the effect of hormones and NTs determined?
Based on where they are acting in the body
178What is ACh?
A signal booster released by pre ganglion cells
179NT or hormone: ACh
NT and H
180NT or hormone: Norepinephrine
NT and H
181What is the only thing released from postganglionic fibers in the sympathetic nervous system?
Norephinephrine
182What is the pathway of stress response hormone and NT release?
ACh --> adrenal glands --> H Norep and Ep in muscles, heart, and lungs
183How are hormones released?
Secreted by glands into bloodstream
184How does smooth muscle contraction and relaxation occur?
Contract: Norep binds to alpha receptor
Relax: Ep binds to beta receptor
185What is a function?
Mathematical concept where all inputs have a specific output
186What is another word for input?
Domain
187What is another word for output?
Range
188What is the independent variable in a function?
Input
189What is the dependent variable in a function?
Output
190What does discrete mean?
Only containing certain values
191What does continuos mean?
Can contain any number
192What is a linear function?
Function in which the slope does not change
193What are constants known as?
Parameters
194What is a family of functions?
Functions sharing certain properties
195What is eccentricity?
Distance from fovea
196What is V4 known as?
The colour cortex
197What is the dorsal stream responsible for?
Motion
198What are parts of the dorsal stream?
MT, MST, V3A, some V1 and V2
200What is the dorsal stream selective for?
Coherence and direction
201Where does depth perception occur?
V1, V2, V3, V3A, and hMT+
202Where does depth perception MOSTLY occur?
V3A
203Where are the object selective areas?
LOC, VOT, and dorsal foci
204What does LOC stand for?
Lateral Occipital Complex
205What contains the FFA and PPA?
LOC
206What is the PPA selective for?
Places
207How many cranial nerves are there?
12
208What are the kinds of cranial nerves?
Sensory, motor, or both
209What are the cranial nerves part of?
PNS
210What are the 12 cranial nerves?
1. Olfactory
2. Optic
3. Oculomotor
4. Trochlear
5. Trigeminal
6. Abducens
7. Facial
8. Auditory
9. Glossopharyngeal
10. Vagus
11. Spinal accessory
12. Hypoglossal
211What kind is the olfactory cranial nerve?
Sensory
212What kind is the optic cranial nerve?
Sensory
213What kind is the oculomotor cranial nerve?
Motor
214What kind is the trochlear cranial nerve?
Motor
215What kind is the trigeminal cranial nerve?
Both
216What kind is the abducens cranial nerve?
Motor
217What kind is the facial cranial nerve?
Both
218What kind is the auditory cranial nerve?
Sensory
219What kind is the glossopharyngeal cranial nerve?
Both
220What kind is the vagus cranial nerve?
Both
221What kind is the spinal accessory cranial nerve?
Motor
222What kind is the hypoglossal cranial nerve?
Motor
223What does the trochlear nerve control?
Crossing eyes
224What does the trigeminal nerve control?
Face and jaw muscles
225What does the abducens nerve control?
Moving eyes side to side
226What does the facial nerve control?
Facial expressions
227What does the glossopharyngeal nerve control?
Tonge and pharynx
228What does the vagus nerve control?
Heart and digestion
229What does the spinal accessory nerve control?
Head and shoulders
230What does the hypoglossal nerve control?
Swallowing and talking
231What do the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS combine to create?
Homeostasis
232What is anosmia?
Loss of smell
233What kinds of receptors do smell and taste activate?
Chemoreceptors
234How does smell work?
Volatile chemicals absorb into membrane
235Where are most taste buds?
Within papillae grooves
236What replaces gustatory cells?
Basal cells
237What controls balance?
Inner ear / vestibular apparatus
238What is the technical term for the ear drum?
Tympanic membrane
239How does the tympanic cavity amplify sound?
Using the osciclles
240Why does the tympanic membrane need to amplify sound?
Signal turns from sound waves to fluid waves