Organismal Biology Final

a group of individuals of the same species living in the same geographic area

Different forms of a gene

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

genetic makeup of an organism

any inherited charateristic that increases an organisms chance of survival

a measure of the ability to survive and reproduce relative to other members of the population

natural selection

It depends on the environment and others in the popultion

Traits that enhance an organisms odds of surviving and passing on its genes

Protects against uv radiation and prevents folate from breaking down

Absorbing calcium for the bones and immune system

a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding.

genetic variation

the genetic process by which one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome during reproductive cell division

A mutation that occurs in the body cells. Cannot be inherited.

a mutation occurring in gametes; passed on to offspring

Neutral, deleterious, and advantageous

Mutations that have little to no effect

Occur in protein coding regions of the genome and causes harmful effects

Genetic changes that improve their carriers' chances of survival or reproduction.

The proportion among all alleles in a gene in a population that consists of a specified allele

When a population exhibits only one allele of a particular gene

The proportion in a population of each genotype at a particular gene or set of genes

any genetic difference among individuals that is present in multiple individuals in a population

Change in the frequency of an allele or genotype from one generation to the next

Describes when evolution does not occur

1. No difference in the survival & reproductive success of individuals w/ different genotypes
2. The population is large enough to prevent sampling errors
3. Populations are not added to or subtracted from by migration
4. There is no mutation
5.individuals mate at random

Mating between individuals where the choice of partner is not influenced by the genotypes

Natural Selection, genetic drift, migration, mutation/ recombination, or non random mating

A well-tested explanation for a wide range of observations or experimental results.

Rapid burst of speciation

the random change in allele frequency in a population

bottleneck and founder effect

A population that was large but then reduced due to a catastrophic event

Genetic drift that occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population and form a new population whose gene pool composition is not reflective of that of the original population.

Genetic drift

Adaptation

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

Small populations

Goal oriented

A typo of natural selection that leads to traits the opposite sex find more attractive

Inbreeding or outbreeding

No, evolution is not perfect

the ability of bacteria to withstand the effects of an antibiotic

Weaken selective pressure( only use when needed), use a stronger attack( right dosage), and multiple selection pressures

Traits that result in separate categories. Ex: small or big

Traits that have many intermediates Ex: human height

directional, stabilizing, disruptive

Selects for one extreme, moves average in one direction

selects against the extremes

selects for the two extremes of the population; selects against the middle

Group of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from the other groups

members of the same species usually look alike

A species is a population, or group of populations, in which evolutionary processes are acting independently

Formation of new species

occur before the formation of the zygote or fertilized egg

Behavioral(Courtship), physical(anatomy), time(different seasons), or space(Different habitat)

The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another.

The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area

When species hybridize and become separate from both parent species

Absence or presence

Barriers after a zygote is produced (reduced hybrid viability, reduced hybrid fertility, hybrid breakdown), inviable, sterile

dispersal and vicariance

Movement of individuals away from centers of high population density or their area of origin.

the physical splitting of a habitat

change from the body form of a common ancestor due to strong selection

Mutation affects the timing of flower blooming

Any officially named group of organisms

The scientific study of how living things are classified

the analysis of evolutionary, or ancestral, relationships between taxa

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Evolutionary history of a species

taxa that are still alive

the closest relatives of another given unit in an evolutionary tree

A taxonomic grouping that includes only a single ancestor and all of its descendants.

Clade

composed of some but not all members descending from a common ancestor

a group that doesn't share a common ancestor

Refers to traits that are shared and inherited

Superficial similarity, not inherited from a common ancestor Ex: bats and bird both have wings but are not from the same common ancestor.

Similar traits, devloped individually (i.e. bipedalism in humans v. chickens), another term for analogous traits

more than two branches from a single node

Taxon

Species

- abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules
- polymerization
-self forming lipid bilateral
-self replication of molecules

a chemical process that combines several monomers to form a polymer or polymeric compound

-4.6 bya Origin of Earth
- 4.3-3.5 bya first prokaryotes
-2.7 bya oxygen accumulation
-2.7-2.1 bya 1st eukaryotes
-1.5 bya multicellular Eukaryotes
-~ 1.5 bya small algae
-640 mya first animals
-~ 540 mya Cambrian explosion
-500mya 1st true plants
- 215-65mya non avian dinos
-70-80mya primates
-5-7mya first humans

The evolution of photosynthesis and aerobic respiration

Requires oxygen

does not require oxygen

The ability for organisms to acquire more ATP which lead to more energy

a theory that states that certain kinds of prokaryotes began living inside of larger cells and evolved into the organelles of modern-day eukaryotes

The rapid diversification of multicellular animal life around the beginning of the Cambrian Period, resulting in the appearance of almost all modern animal phyla.

The dinosaur extinction that occurred when a large meteor hit the earth.

Bacteria and Archaea

unicellular and sometimes colonial

One of two prokaryotic domains, the other being Bacteria.

- different lipid in membranes
-type of RNA polymerase and ribosomes
- live in variety of habitats

Nutrient cycling, transforming molecules, and digestion

prokaryotes that use inorganic chemicals as their energy source. EX: bacteria

Organisms that use light as a source of energy to synthesize organic substances. EX: algae

An organism that must consume organic molecules for both energy and carbon. EX: protists

Use light but get carbon from other organisms EX: bacteria

The smaller participant in a symbiotic relationship, living in or on the host.

Prokaryotes that synthesize methane from carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas

Multicellular organisms EX: hydra

Algae and Protozoa

photosynthetic protists Ex: kelp

Chemoheterotrophic protists Ex ameba

Foundation

a relationship between two or more organisms for a long time

Coral, kelp forests, termites

Highly developed mechanisms, 3 dimensional bod, specialized structures for cell to cell communication

Specialization, meaning not all cells have to do everything, better performance of one or a couple of things

Gap junctions

Plasmodesmata

Chemical and electrical signals

Diffusion

Bulk flow

Movement of molecules due to pressure differences allowing transport at rates beyond diffusion EX: circulatory system, vascular system

protists

plants, animals, fungi

Photoheterotrophs

Double membranes, circular dna, and reproduce through binary fission

Viruses, dead bacteria, and linking to other prokaryotes

Photosynthetic, cell walls of cellulose, cuticle. Pollen(n), spores, apical meristems, and totipotent cells

A layer on the above ground portion of the plamt

The bud of a plant, where plant cells are formed

Stem cells with the potential to differentiate into any type of cell.

Heterotrophic, collagen as structural protein, self powered mvmt, have nerves and muscles, and have a blastula as a development stage

Have hyphae, heterotrophs, cell walls of chitin, 2 phases of fertilization, fruiting bodies, and apical growth.

The branching, threadlike tubes that make up the bodies of multicellular fungi

yeast

Have nuclei

Have pores

Mitotic cell division, cell expansion, cell differentiation

No stopping point, adult size relies on resource availability EX: plant, fungi, fish

stop growing after reaching a certain size

Apical meristems have totipotent cells and have modular growth

Apical growth: tip grows longer but not wider, loosely arranged mycelium

Mvmt of cells during development t

Their cell walls restrict moment

Shoots and roots

roots, stems, leaves, flowers

tissue of the plant that makes up the waxy outer layer of the plant

tissue system that makes up the majority of a plant

Plant tissue consisting of cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body.

4 main tissue types, 2 or 3 germ layers, fate of first pore

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

Packed tightly, boundary between individual and environment

Four structural support, made of Extracellular matrix

ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

Ecological relationship between the mycelium of a fungus and the roots of certain plants

A shared, derived trait found in two or more taxa that is present in their most recent common ancestor

Process by which two species evolve in response to changes in each other

A lineage undergoes a relatively quick series of speciation events due to the influence of natural selection

Monophyletoc

Species that can survive in extreme environments

Enclose their DNA in a membrane bound nucleus

Eukaryotes

linear

specific location of a gene on a chromosome

part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides, result is 2 diploid cells

Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms, includes genetic recombination, result is 4 different haploid cells

Growth and repair

Sexual reproduction

Spores, multicellular gametophytes

binary fission

Asexual, sexual, and Intermediate( selfing )

Diploid(2n)

Multicellular(2n) -> Ovary & testes -> gametes(n) unicellular -> Zygote -> Blastula -> Gastrula -> Multicellular

External(Aquatic) & internal

Alternation of generations

the alternation between the haploid gametophyte and the diploid sporophyte in a plant's life cycle

Sporophyte (2n) —-Through Mitosis—-> Sporangium ---through meiosis---> Spores (1n) --> Gametophyte (1n) ---through mitosis---> Gamete (1n) --> Zygote (2n) --> Sporophyte (2n)

Mycelium(n) —-Plasmogamy—> heterokaryotic cells —Karyoganmy—> Zygotes(2n) —-Meiosis—> spores — Dispersal & germination—-> Mycelium(n)

Mycelium > spores > Dispersal & germination

Sexual reproduction when two hyphae of different mating types fuse(Karyogany), resulting in 4 haploid cells

2 genetically distinct nuclei

Two haploid nuclei fuse

Spores are catapulted away from basidium in between gills on underside of fruiting body cap, carried away via wind

Spores W/ short distance dispersal of sperm through water

Dispersase as seeds, disperse sperm in pollen

Sporophytes that are homozygous and genetic clones of each other

Homozygous or heterozygous sporophytes, depends on gametophyte

Seed plants

Dispersal via spores, requires water film for fertilization , sporangium cannot survive on its own, primarily haploid, multicellular gametophyte and sporophyte

Diploid dominant, meiosis occurs on sporangium on underside of leaf, require water film for fertilization

Sporophyte dominant(Diploid), Sporangium inside ovule(Contains female spore), Stamen( male Sporangium), pollen is dispersed by stamen and delivers sperm via tube

Water

Sporophyte

heterosporous

Spores of two sizes

lack specialized tissues, reply on osmosis & diffusion, limited growth potential,

Vascular tissue (xylem and phloem), rely on bulk flow, large sporophytes but small gametophytes, true leaves

vascular tissue that carries water upward from the roots to every part of a plant

The vascular tissue through which food moves in some plants

Lycophytes, ferns & allies, Seed plants

Small Exant plant w/: Dichotomous branching, independent phases, true leaves W/ one vein

gymnosperms and angiosperms

seeds in cones(male), haploid tissue, naked seeds(female), mostly pollinated by wind, lack fruits and flowers, needle like leaves

Pine, spruce, cypress

Produce fruit, seasonal life style, Triploid tissue, pollinated various ways, Female(Wrapped in carpel), Male(pollen in stamens)

angiosperms

Sepals(outermost), Petals, Stamen(male), Carpel(female)

Wheat, apple, maple, rose, walnut,

Female sporophytes

Produces endosperm and results in diploid and triploid tissues

angiosperms

cluster of flowers

lack true tissues; have choanocytes (flagellated cells), spicules, blastula, intracelular digestion

animals with true tissues; all animals except sponges, muscles evolved @ base

Muscles & nerves cells,True tissues, Digestive cavity with internal digestion(Extracellular)

invertebrates that have stinging cells( cnidocytes) and take food into a central body cavity, 2 germ layers(ectoderm & endoderm), radial symmetry

Medusa(Tentacles hanging down ) & polyp( tentacles up)

Many planes of symmetry around central axis

Body plan in which only a single, imaginary line can divide the body into two equal halves, allows mvmt in horizontal direction

Have 3 germ layers, Protosomes(mouth first) and Deutrosomes(mouth second)

an organism who's blastopore forms the mouth (Arthropods, annelids and mollusks)

blastopore becomes anus (chordata, Echinodermata)

Invertebrate, exoskeleton, composed of segments, appendages(legs & Antena) with joints, bilateral symmetry, open circulatory system, metamorphic(partial or complete), largest animal phylum

Flexible segmented body, gut head to tail, sophisticated nervous system, pulsing circulatory system, diverse

Mantle, tube feet, radula,

Radial symmetry, tube feet, bony plate,external digestion

an animal phylum that has a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, and gill slits at some time in its life cycle

voluntary, involuntary, cardiac

Hydrostatic, exoskeleton, endoskeleton

A fluid skeleton in many soft-bodied invertebrates( annelids, Cnidarians, Mollusks)

A body covering, typically made of chitin, that provides support and protection, venerable when molting (arthropods)

internal skeleton or supporting framework in an animal (Chordates, Echinoderms, Poriferans)

Ratio of a cell's outside area to its internal volume, influences shapes of cells & tissues & organs of organisms

Nutrient Absorption

Lungs, small intestine, porous organelles of mushrooms

Cacti, arctic animals

Ecological relationship between the mycelium of a fungus and the roots of certain plants

Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

the transport of substances through a cell membrane along a concentration gradient with the aid of carrier proteins

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution.

Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution

Same concentration

Aerobic

the exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions

large surface area( lungs, gills, trachea, inside tissues)

stomata

loss of water from a plant through its leaves

attraction between water molecules

An attraction between molecules of different substances

transpiration occurs, creating a pull force on water molecules due to cohesion, entire column of water moves up xylem tubes to replace water lost

Continuous water column

explanation for upward transport of water in xylem based upon transpiration-created tension and the cohesive properties of water molecules

Transport of carbohydrates and water are separate, powered by negative pressure.

A water-impermeable ring of wax in the endodermal cells of plants that blocks the passive flow of water and solutes into the stele by way of cell walls.

Photosynthesis and transpiration decrease & water cannot move inside

Bulk flow, powered by positive pressure

A circulatory system that allows hemolymph to flow out of the blood vessels and into various body cavities so that the cells are in direct contact

A circulatory system in which the oxygen-carrying blood cells never leave the blood vessels

Large

Small

away from the heart

toward

Large

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

A feedback loop in which a system responds to a change by returning to its original state, or by decreasing the rate at which the change is occurring.

a feedback loop in which change in a system is amplified

Control body temperature with changes in behavior Ex: insects , less stable then endotherms

Control body temperature with physiological changes Ex: birds

marine animals which, in contrast to osmoregulators, maintain the osmolarity of their body fluids such that it is always equal to the surrounding seawater.

- Actively regulate their water loss or gain
- Include freshwater animals, most marine vertebrates, and all land animals

Getting water through drinking, eating, aerobic respiration And conserving water through barriers and waste absorption

1. Nitrogenous waste 2. Feces

ammonia, toxic

Ammonia, Urea, Uric Acid

Nitrogenous waste of mostly aquatic animals Ex: Fish very toxic

nitrogenous waste of mammals, amphibians, sharks, and bony fish

nitrogenous waste of birds, insects, reptiles, and land snails, leas toxic

the system that removes waste from your body and controls water balance

functional unit of the kidney that filters, absorbs, and secretes

cup-shaped strucutre of the nephron of a kidney which encloses the glomerulus and which filtration takes place.

Fluid inside the nephron that will eventually be removed

Site at which most of the tubular reabsorption occurs

section of the nephron tubule that conserves water and minimizes the volume of urine

Portion of the nephron permeable only to water. The filtrate becomes more concentrated as it travels through, increasing concentration of the interstitial fluid.

Portion of the nephron not permeable to water, As the filtrate flows through, ions are actively pumped out of the filtrate, decreasing its concentration.

Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium

A segment of the nephron that returns water form the filtrate to the bloodstream.

the excretory organs of insects and other terrestrial arthropods.

1. Neighboring cells( diffusion) 2. Distant cells(bulk flow)

Chemical and electrical

Hormones, relatively slow

Action potentials, fast

Produced in plants and animals to regulate growth and body progresss

only certain neurotransmitters can activate certain receptors

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells. Ex: pituary gland

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

sensory, motor, interneurons

respond to environmental stimuli, such as light, odor, or touch

Relays signals

a neuron that sends an impulse to a muscle or gland, causing the muscle or gland to react

Glucagon