Exam 2 Review

Cognition - interaction

They are the way we process, organize, structure, and retreive information to make sense of ourselves and others in interactions

Social process

People process socially constructed conceptual systems that represent their knowledge of the world

culture/structure; cognitions

draw people's attention; process that information

Perceivers sample from and combine multiple representations stored in memory to make an inference about a particular stimulus

Attention grabbing stimuli that are intense, repetitive, or goal-related

Given natural expectations for positive outcomes, people pay more atttention to negative information

Priming: experiences or procedures that bring a particular category in mind, and efffect how situations thereafter are processed through this category

Priming is an automatic process that enhances the likelihood that we access a particcular representation stored in our memory

priming depends on how recent or frequent the category is encountered

Assimimilation is the process in which we see all information through the category that was primed

Assimilation is most likely to occur when a primed construct seems applicable to ambigious people or situations

Regular categories : Our mental representations of classes/people of abstract/concrete things, events, or people

Overlapping categories: some "neighbors" may also be our "friends"

Nested categories : "nurses" are also "healthcare workers"

Hierarchically ordered categories : Reflect power structures to facilitate deference rituals

It results in a loss of accuracy but it can provide an initial basis for us to make inferences to choose appropriate actions

Emerges from our representations of individual members of a category, which is then used to integrate new stimuli through those represntations

A prototype: A representation detailing a typical category member, summarized as the most common person of that category

Ex: Teachers are women because of social structure

Exemplar: A representation that stems from characteristics compiled based on an individual's perception of real people

Ex: Think of your favorite teacher, that person is an exemplar

A perceiver who uses stored representations and shortcuts to filter out unrelated information

1. Compelling contradictory evidence
2. Content of representation is so extreme all incoming stimuli are constrative
3. Categorical information is weak

Heuristics

Anchors

Framing Processes

Heuristics are shortcuts that people use to make sense of a situation without considering all available information

Most likely to be used in situations where the perceiver has lots of practice or when they cannot accurately assess all stimuli

They are not motivated by biases or irrational behavior

Representativeness - Categorization in which we attempt to see a stimuli as similar to the category prototype, you are just like every average person in that category

Availability - Categorization of a stimulus based on what was recently perceived or is frequently activated

Simulation - Mental stimulation of why people are doing something, which intensifies emotions and causes people to think that different behaviors were possible

Anchors - perceptual reference points that help us reduce confusion and help simplify perceptions

Ex: Race as an anchor to cops

Framing - Framing of decisions or choices activates different representations that help us interperet relevant information

Ex Get the vaccine so you don't die

An attribution is an inference about the cause of someone's reaction

Internal attribution : Focus on the person and their qualities

External attributions : Focus on contextual features and pressures

Categorical Information - Information related to the prototype

Distinctiveness information - how the same person acts towards different entities. Are they like this to other people and at other times?

Consistency information - Does this person act like this to a specific entity over time?

Consensus information - Our consideration of how other people respond to the same entity in the situation. Consensus is high when others respond similarily

Egocentric : People tend to see themselves as more central to events than they really are. Main Character syndrome

Self-serving bias : People are motivated to see themselves positively, so they become skeptical about negative information and readily accept positive information
--------They are more likely to make internal attributions for positive outcomes related to self and external attributions for negative outcomes related to self

IT only extends to in-group members

Tendency to attribute positive behaviors and outcomes of own group members to internal qualities and to externalize the causes of their negative behaviors

Tendency to attribute others behavior to internal qualities while you attribute your own to situational factors.

HWLC: Elderly/disabled
HWHC: Middle class, white people, christians
LWLC: Poor/homeless
LWHC: Jews, germans

Prejudice is an attitude or feeling that is unfavorable toward people of a specific group

Implicit bias is automatic and unintentional

Discrimination is the action taken that benefits the favored or dominant group and disadvantages the disfavored group

No, it is situational. Remember that cognitions come from culture, which comes from society

Therefore, prejudice is systemic

objects, people, places, things, ideas

influence what we perceive, how we perceive it, and how we remember it

Through cognitive responses: Expressed thoughts and beliefs that individuals have

Affective responses : Feelings, emotions, and moods evoked by annd expressed toward the object

Behavioral responses: Actions taken towards the object

Mere exposure - repeated exposure to an object increases favorability

Classsical conditioning - pairing with UCS and UCR numerous times

Operant conditioning - pairing through rewards/punishments

Self-perception theory: People infer their attitudes from their own behavior by observing themselves

Balance Theory - Incorporates how other people influence a person's attitudes + assumption that individuals are motivated to achieve consistency. People form attitudes that promote consistency
Example: I like cookies. I deduce that i like peanut cookies because I have a strong liking for cookies in general. I know I like noodles, so I probably like ramen.
Factor in likes and dislikes

Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Inconsistency or dissonant cognitions create aversive states that we want to resolve by changing one cognition, removing one cognition, changing both cognitions, or adding cognitions

The social psychological study of differentially positioned groups whose interactions are propelled by cognitive and emotional processes

Intergroup behavior is the how people in groups perceive, think about, feel about, act towards, and relate to people in other groups

Sifting - Categorization of people into groups through visible/situational factors or statuses

Prejudice - An attitude or feeling, positive or negative, toward people belonging to a particular group

Stereotype - Beliefs about the features, opinions, and expected behaviors of a group that are generalized to individuals belonging to the group

SIT argues that group membership impacts perceived status differences among groups

It assumes that individuals are motivated to achieve a positive self-concept through emphasizing positive qualities

It reduces individual uncertainty by identifying with a group, which reduces uncertainties about situations and their roles in them

Strength of social identificatoin with a group

Situational cues for a group identity that is relevant to you (You walk into a classroom and this triggers student)

Competition for resources and relative structural positions of the groups within a situation

Boundary permability is the social mobility between groups

Stable social hierarchy - largely unchanging, and if accepted, it is considered legitimate

general-abstract; concrete

general;concrete

Intergroup confict emerges when two or more groups want to acchieve prosperity, but resources only allow one group to achieve its goal (Zero-sum situations)

They develop antagonistic attitudes towards outgroup members while they increase identification within their own group, enhancing solidarity

self-control, which is social control

First componenet : assessment or evaluation tool of an object, a person, an event, or situation

Second component - They result in physiological or bodily sensations

Third component - Expressive gestures go with felt emotions

Fourth : The attachment of a cultural label to combinations of the first three components

Moods are an affective state without a clear source.

Moods - lower intensity feelings and longer duration feelings
Emotions - high intensity, low duration

Sentiments are enduring evaluations typically pertaining to social relationships or identities

These feelings transcend situational context and are socially constructed

Valence of emotion - positive/negative, pleasant or unpleasant binaries
Degree of arousal - level of engagement animation or liveliness that accompanies an emotion
Level of potency - degree to which a agiven emotion indicates powerfulness in stimulation or directing attention

Emotionl cultures are cultural context that dictates who is allowed to experience what, and in what way they are allowed to experience the intensity/duration of the emotions

This depends on your social group

Emotion management is the cognitive and behavioral way that people bring their felt/expressed emotions into line with cultural feeling/display rules

Surface acting - we try to change our emotions by changing our outward expressions of feelings, we try to sell an act to ourselves

Deep acting- we actually work on changing the feeling itself


Cognitive techniques - Changing our ideas or htoughts to alter the feelings around them

Bodily techniques - Using our physical behavior or presentation to change our feelings

Expressive Techniques - Activating expressive gestures to change inner feelings

Jobs require this

Reciprocal emotional management - "I hate my boyfriend" "yeah he's such a dumbass"

Cultures write the content of our feelings and display rules - it is the creator of the script

Structure is what actually determines our access t o the opportunity to invoke display and feeling rules

Differences between individuals in terms of perceived worthiness, prestige, and social value within a particular context

Ex: less likely to be angry with people of higher status