1What does hydrolized mean?
Break down
2What percentage of blood goes through the liver?
98%
3Why is GLUT5 not listed as insulin independent or dependent?
Because it is not responsible for bringing glucose into the blood
4Who produces the most propionate?
Cows > Horses > Pigs
5Why does glucagon decrease protein synthesis?
Because amino acids are used in gluceogenesis instead
6Which carbohydrate is not hydrolized by mammalian enzymes?
Structural
7Which carbohydrate is hydrolized by only microbial enzymes?
Structural
8What is the most common type of structural carbohydrate?
Cellulose
9What is cellulose made up of?
Glucose
10What is a food example of cellulose?
Hay or grass
11What are structural carbohydrates also known as?
Fiber
12What are nonstructural carbohydrates also known as?
Starches and sugars
13What carbohydrate can be hydrolized by both mammalian and microbial enzymes?
Nonstructural
14What is the most common nonstructural carbohydrate?
Starch
15What is a food example of starch?
Corn
16What is corn made up of?
Glucose
17What makes up carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides
18What are the types of monosaccharides?
Glucose, galactose, and fructose
19How many sugar molecules are in a monosaccharide?
One
20What can absorb monosaccharides?
Enterocytes
21What can ferment monosaccharides?
Microbes
22What are disaccharides?
2 sugar molecules linked together by a glycosidic bond
23What links together sugar molecules to make polysaccharides?
Glycosidic bonds
24What type of enzymes can digest lactose?
Mammalian and microbial enzymes
25What two monosaccharides make up lactose?
Glucose and galactose
26What types of enzymes can hydrolize glucose?
ME and BE
27What types of enzymes can hydrolize galactose?
ME and BE
28What type of enzymes can hydrolize fructose?
ME and BE
29What type of enzymes can hydrolize lactose?
ME and BE
30What type of enzymes can hydrolize sucrose?
ME and BE
31What types of enzymes can hydrolize maltose?
ME and BE
32What types of enzymes can hydrolize cellobiose?
ME and BE
33What is a heteropolymer?
A polymer made up of various molecules or units
34What monomers is starch made up of?
Glucoses
35What monomers is cellulose made up of?
Glucoses
36How do you turn a polysaccharide back into a monosaccharide?
Must break the glycosidic bond between the sugar molecules
37What types of enzymes can digest sucrose?
Mammalian and microbial enzymes
38What types of enzymes can digest maltose?
Mammalian and microbial enzymes
39What enzymes can digest cellobiose?
Microbial enzymes only
40What is a food example of lactose?
Sugar milk
41What is a food example of sucrose?
Table sugar
42What monosaccharides make up sucrose?
Glucose and fructose
43What is a product of starch digestion?
Maltose
44What monosaccharides make up maltose?
Glucose and glucose
45What is a product of cellulose digestion?
Cellobiose
46What monosaccharides make up cellobiose?
Glucose and glucose
47What types of glycosidic bonds are in starch?
Alpha glycosidic
48What is a homopolymer?
A polymer made up of chains of the same type of monomer
49What type of polymer is starch?
A homopolymer
50What is a function of starch?
Storage polysaccharides
51What type of polymer is cellulose?
A homopolymer
52What type of glycosidic bonds make up cellulose?
Beta glycosidic bonds
53What is the function of cellulose?
Structural polysaccharide
54What is lignin?
NOT A CARBOHYDRATE - part of the plant's cell wall and is associated with cellulose
55What happens to digestibility as lignin concentration is increased?
Digestibility (of cellulose) with derease
56How do you calculate digestbility?
(intake - feces)/intake x 100
57What is 100% indigestible?
Lignin
58What are the types of starch?
Amylose and amylopectin
59What is the structural build of amylose?
Alpha 1,4 linkages, chains of glucose, and about 100 glucose molecules
60What is the structural build of amylopectin?
Alpha 1.4 and 1,6 linkages, 1.6 branch points, about 1,000 to 10,000 glucose molecules - structurally similar to glycogen
61What bonds make up maltose?
Alpha 1,4 glycocidic
62What bonds make up cellobiose?
Beta 1,4 glycosidic
63Where does mammalian digestion of nonstructural carbohydrates take place?
The small intestine
64What type of enzymes can hydrolize the alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond?
Mammalian and microbial
65What enzymes can hydrolize the beta 1,4 glycosidic bonds?
Microbial enzymes
66What glycosidic bond makes up maltose?
Alpha 1,4
67What glycosidic bond makes up cellobiose?
Beta 1,4
68What can salivary amylase hydrolize?
Alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds
69What does the decreased pH in the stomach do to salivary amylase?
Deactivates it
70Where does nearly all of mammalian NCHO digestion occur?
The small intestine
71Where is all of glucose, fructose, and galactose absorption occur?
The small intestine
72What does pancreatic amylase hydrolize?
Alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds
73What are brush border enzymes?
Enzymes produced by the enterocytes themselves
74What is hemicellulose?
A heteropolymer structural carbohydrate made up of glucose, xylose, mannose, arabinose, etc.
75What can hemicellulose be hydrolized by?
BE
76What is pectin?
A heteropoylmer structural carbohydrate (fiber) made up of arabinose and galactose
77What can pectin be hydrolized by?
BE
78What is lignin a part of?
The cell wall
79What does an increased amount of lignin cause?
A decrease in cellulose digestion
80What are the brush border enzymes?
Maltase, isomaltase, glucoamylase, lactase, sucrase, and phlorizin hydrolase
81How many nonruminant brush border enzymes are there?
6
82What type of enzymes are brush border enzymes?
ME
83What is maltase?
An enzyme that hydrolizes maltose into 2 glucose or maltotriose into 3 glucose
84What produces maltase?
ME as a brush border enzyme and by amylolytic bacteria (BE)
85What does maltose produce when it is hydrolized?
2 glucose molecules
86What does maltotriose produce when it is hydrolized?
3 glucose molecules
87What must be present for pancreatic alpha amylase to be active?
At least 5 glucose molecules
88What are the products pancreatic alpha amylase creates?
Maltose, maltotriose, and isomaltose
89What is isomaltase?
An enzyme that hydrolizes isomaltose into 2 glucose molecules or maltotriose into 3 glucose molecules
90What enzymes produce isomaltase?
ME as a brush border enzyme and by amylolytic bacteria (BE)
91What is glucoamylase?
An enzyme that hydrolizes one glucose molecule from starch
92What produces glucoamylase?
ME into a brush border enzyme and by amylolytic bacteria (BE)
93What is lactase?
An enzyme that hydrolizes lactose into glucose and galactose
94What is sucrase?
A brush border enzyme that hydrolizes sucrose into glucose and fructose
95What is phlorizin hydrolase?
A brush border enzyme that cleaves sugars that are bound to lipids
96What is GLUT1?
A transporter found in the brain, placenta, and erythrocytes
97What is GLUT2?
Transports glucose, fructose, and galactose out of the enterocyte and into the bloodstream (found in viscera)
98Where can GLUT2 be found?
Pancreas, liver, kindeys, and intestines
99What is GLUT3?
Transporter in neuronal and placental tissue
100What is GLUT4?
Insulin responsive transporter found in skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and adipose tissue
101What is GLUT5
Apically expressed transporter that facilitates the diffusion of fructose
102What is insulin produced by?
The beta cells in the pancreas
103What is insulin produced in response to?
An increase of blood glucose concentration (like after eating)
104What does the production of insulin result in?
Increased protein synthesis, increased glycogen synthesis (liver and muscle tissue), increased fat synthesis, and decreased gluconeogenesis
105What is gluconeogenesis?
The creation of glucose via amino acids
106What is glycogen?
A carbohydrate that acts as a storage form of glucose in the liver and muscles
107What is Type I Diabetes?
When the pancreas does not produce insulin which makes it difficult to decrease the blood glucose concentration
108Which type of diabetes is solely genetic?
Type I
109What is Type II Diabetes?
When cells (muscle and adipose) ignore the insulin signal, so there is no GLUT4 translocation which can make it diffcult to decrease the blood glucose concentration
110What can cause Type II Diabetes?
Genetics, diet, or excercise
111Which type of diabetes can be reversed with diet and excercise?
Type II
112What does the translocation of GLUT4 within a cell do?
It allows for glucose to enter the cell and be used for fat synthesis
113What signals for GLUT4 to translocate towards the outside of the cell?
Insulin
114Where does glycogen synthesis occur?
Muscle cells
115Where does fat synthesis occur?
Adipocytes
116What are adipocytes?
Fat cells
117What transporter(s) does insulin independent absorption use?
GLUT1-3
118What transporter(s) does insulin dependent absorption use?
GLUT4
119What does amylose produce when it is hydrolized by pancreatic alpha amylase?
Maltose and maltotriose
120What does amylopectin produce when it is hydrolized by pancreatic alpha amylase?
Maltose, maltotriose, and isomaltose
121What is glucagon?
A hormone produced by pancreatic alpha cells that plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels when they are low
122What conditions causes an increase in glucagon production?
Decreased blood glucose concentration (fasting conditions)
123What does glucagon result in?
Increased gluconeogenesis, increased glycogen breakdown, decreased protein synthesis, and decreased fat synthesis
124How do glucagon and insulin relate to one another?
They don't - they are essentially the exact opposite of one another in purpose and results
125What is a hydrogen sink?
A molecule where microbes deposite H+ to allow microbial metabolism to continue
126What are the main hydrogen sinks?
CH4, Propionate, and Unsaturated Fatty Acids
127What is amylolytic bacteria?
Bacteria that produce microbial enzymes to breakdown starch
128What is alpha amylase?
An endoenzyme that hydrolizes starch randomly and is produced by amylolytic bacteria (BE)
129What is an endoenzyme?
An enzyme that attacks starch on the inside of a molecule to produce oligosaccharides
130What is beta amylase?
An exoenzyme that produces maltose, isomaltose, and maltotriose and is produced by amylolytic bacteria (BE)
131What is an exoenzyme?
An enzyme that attacks starch on the end/outside of the molecule
132What is pullulanase?
An enzyme that hydrolizes 1,6 glycosidic bonds, essentially debranching an enzyme, and capable of attacking the inside of a starch molecule
133What is cellulolytic bacteria?
Bacteria that produce microbial enzymes to breakdown cellulose and produce more methane
134What enzymes do celluloytic bacteria produce?
Exoglucanase, endoglucanase, cellobiohydralase, cellobiosodase, cellobiase, and cellodextrinase
135What do the enzymes produced by cellulolytic bacteria make up?
The cellulase complex
136What is exoglucanase?
An enzyme that produces one glucose from a cellulose molecule (BE)
137What is exoglucananse produced by?
Cellulolytic bacteria, making it microbial
138What is endoglucanase?
A microbial enzyme that produces oligosaccharides of various lengths from cellulose (BE)
139What is endoglucanase produced by?
Cellulolytic bacteria, making it a microbial enzyme
140What is cellobiohydralase?
A microbial enzyme that produces cellobiose from oligosaccharides (produced by cellulolytic bacteria)
141What is cellobiosidase?
A microbial enzyme that produces cellobiose from oligosaccharides (produced by cellulolytic bacteria)
142What is cellobiase?
A microbial enzyme that produces 2 glucose from cellobiose (produced by cellulolytic bacteria)
143What is cellodextrinase?
A microbial enzyme that cleaves a glucose from cellulose (produced by cellulolytic bacteria)
144What is ruminant acidosis?
An accumulation of lactate in the reticulorumen that results in a pH of or less than 5.5
145What is hindgut overload?
Similar to ruminal acidosis but occurs in horses
146What is ionophore?
An antibiotic
147What is rumensin?
Feed additive that regulates intake (number and size of meals), then selects for a more favorable fermentation/microbiology population
148What does rumensin do to the body/community?
Decreases methane production, improves protein ulitlization, decreases ruminal degradation
149What is the goal of fermenting carbohydrates?
To take one glucose and turn it into Acetate, Propionate, Butyrate, CO2, and CH4
150What are the products of carbohydrate fermentation?
Acetate, Propionate, Butyrate, CO2, and CH4
151What is the number of VFAs per glucose produced from acetate?
2
152What is the number of VFAs per glucose produced from propionate?
2
153What is the number of VFAs per glucose produced from butyrate?
1
154What is the amount of microbial ATP produced from acetate?
4
155What is the amount of microbial ATP produced from propionate?
1-3
156What is the amount of microbial ATP produced from butyrate?
3
157How much CO2 is produced from acetate?
1
158How much CO2 is produced from propionate?
0
159How much CO2 is produced from butyrate?
15
160How much CH4 is produced from acetate?
1
161How much CH4 is produced from propionate?
Prevents 0.5 CH4 production
162How much CH4 is produced from butyrate?
0.5
163What is the chemical formula for acetate?
CH3COOH
164What is the chemical formula for propionate?
CH3CH2COOH
165What is the chemical formula for butyrate?
CH3CH2CH2COOH
166What percentage of the glucose energy available to mammals is acetate?
62%
167What percentage of the glucose energy available to mammals is propionate?
109% (Because it is hydrogen accepting/hydrogen sink)
168What percentage of the glucose energy available to mammals is butyrate?
78%
169What proportion of APE is acetate?
60%
170What proportion of APE is propionate?
30%
171What proportion of APE is butyrate?
10%
172How does acetate react to an increase in SCHO?
It will icnrease
173How does propionate react to an increase in SCHO?
It will decrease
174How does acetate react to an increase in NCHO?
It will decrease
175How does propionate react to a increase in NCHO?
It will increase
176What does the mammal use acetate for?
Energy (ATP), SubQ fat, and milk fat
177What does the mammal use propionate for?
Energy (ATP), Glycogenetic, marbling
178What does the mammal use butyrates for?
Energy (ATP) and epithelial tissue
179As propionate increases, what happens to methane?
It decreases
180As acetate increases, what happens to methane?
It increases
181Which animal does not use GLUT5?
Cowsuminants because they no longer have any sucrose (digested all of it already)
182Why do horses do a poor job of digesting a large amount of starch in their small intestines?
Because they have a shorter small intestine and smaller stomach, which increases Kp and decreases the time available to digest starch (also limits enzyme production)
183Why do horses have lots of fermentation occur in their large intestine?
Because of how large it is (decrease in Kp), the limited amount of digestion in the small intestines, and diet (lots of SCHO)
184What happens when something has more surface area?
It is easier to digest, and more digestion occurs (easily digestible)
185Which animal does not produce salivary amylase?
Cows