Cardiovascular System
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1
What are the three major components of the cardiovascular system?
Heart, blood vessels, and blood
2
What is the heart's main function?
Acts as a double-sided pump that establishes blood pressure.
3
What does the pulmonary circuit carry blood through?
The lungs
4
What does the systemic circuit carry blood through?
The body tissues
5
What are blood vessels?
A tubular network of passageways that carries blood.
6
What are the two main functions of blood vessels?
Distribute blood throughout the body and facilitate material exchange with tissues.
7
What materials do blood vessels help exchange with tissues?
Nutrients, gases, wastes, and hormones
8
What is the correct order of blood vessels?
Arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins
9
What is blood?
A liquid connective tissue that transports dissolved and suspended materials.
10
What are the major functions of blood?
Transportation, immunity, and heat regulation
11
What nutrients does blood transport?
Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals
12
What signaling molecules does blood transport?
Hormones
13
Where does blood pick up oxygen?
The lungs
14
Where does blood deliver oxygen?
The body tissues
15
Where does blood pick up carbon dioxide?
The body tissues
16
Where does blood deliver carbon dioxide?
The lungs
17
Where is urea transported for removal?
The kidneys
18
Which blood cells provide immune defense?
White blood cells (leukocytes)
19
How does blood regulate body temperature?
By altering blood flow closer to or farther away from the skin.
20
What happens when blood flow moves closer to the skin?
The body cools down.
21
What happens when blood flow moves farther from the skin?
The body keeps warm.
22
Why is blood classified as connective tissue?
It contains cells and a liquid matrix.
23
What is the approximate total blood volume in females?
4–5 L
24
What is the approximate total blood volume in males?
5–6 L
25
What percentage of body mass is blood?
Approximately 8%
26
What are the formed elements of blood?
Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
27
What percentage of blood volume consists of formed elements?
Approximately 45%
28
What percentage of blood volume is plasma?
Approximately 55%
29
What are red blood cells also called?
Erythrocytes (RBCs)
30
What percentage of blood volume consists of RBCs?
Approximately 45%
31
What is the main function of RBCs?
Transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
32
What is hematocrit (Hct)?
The percentage of blood volume composed of RBCs.
33
What does a hemoglobin (Hgb) concentration test measure?
The amount of hemoglobin in blood and its oxygen-carrying capacity.
34
What does a total RBC count measure?
The number of red blood cells in blood.
35
What are white blood cells also called?
Leukocytes (WBCs)
36
What percentage of blood volume consists of WBCs?
Less than 1%
37
What is the main function of WBCs?
Immunity and defense against disease.
38
Where are WBCs found after centrifugation?
The buffy coat
39
Where is the buffy coat located after centrifugation?
Between the RBC layer and plasma.
40
What does a total WBC count measure?
The total number of WBCs in blood.
41
What does a differential WBC count measure?
The percentages of different WBC subtypes in blood.
42
What are the main types of WBCs measured in a differential count?
Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils
43
What are platelets also called?
Thrombocytes
44
Are platelets complete cells?
No, they are cell fragments.
45
Where are platelets found after centrifugation?
In the buffy coat, along with WBCs.
46
What is the main function of platelets?
Hemostasis, or stopping bleeding.
47
How do platelets help stop bleeding?
They release chemicals and form a temporary platelet plug.
48
What is plasma?
The liquid matrix of blood.
49
What percentage of total blood volume is plasma?
Approximately 55%
50
What is the appearance of plasma?
Straw-colored and sticky
51
What percentage of plasma is water?
Approximately 90%
52
What is the major solute in plasma?
Sodium (Na⁺)
53
Which ions are found in plasma?
Na⁺, Cl⁻, bicarbonate, and K⁺
54
Which nutrients are found in plasma?
Glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids
55
Which wastes are found in plasma?
Urea, uric acid, and CO₂
56
What other substances are transported in plasma?
Hormones and vitamins
57
What percentage of plasma consists of proteins?
Approximately 7–9%
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Where are most plasma proteins produced?
The liver
59
What percentage of plasma proteins are albumins?
Approximately 55%
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What is the main function of albumins?
Maintain water retention in the blood.
61
What percentage of plasma proteins are globulins?
Approximately 40%
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What are the functions of globulins?
Immunity and transport of lipids, fat-soluble vitamins, and hormones.
63
Which plasma proteins function as antibodies?
Globulins
64
What percentage of plasma proteins are fibrinogens?
Approximately 6%
65
What is the main function of fibrinogen?
It is a major blood-clotting factor.
66
What is fibrinogen converted into during clotting?
Fibrin
67
What is serum?
Plasma without clotting factors.
68
What are formed elements?
The cellular components of blood.
69
Which three components make up the formed elements?
Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes
70
What is another name for erythrocytes?
Red blood cells
71
What is another name for thrombocytes?
Platelets
72
What is another name for leukocytes?
White blood cells
73
How many times more numerous are RBCs than WBCs?
Approximately 1,000 times
74
What is the approximate RBC count per cubic millimeter of blood?
5 million RBCs/mm³
75
What is the approximate diameter of an RBC?
7 μm
76
What is the shape of an RBC?
A small, biconcave disc
77
Do mature RBCs have a nucleus?
No, they are enucleated.
78
Do mature RBCs contain organelles?
No, they have no organelles.
79
What protein fills approximately 97% of RBC cytoplasm?
Hemoglobin
80
What is hemoglobin?
A protein that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
81
Where do RBCs pick up oxygen?
The lungs
82
Where do RBCs deliver oxygen?
The body tissues
83
Where are RBCs produced?
The red bone marrow
84
How long do RBCs live?
Approximately 120 days
85
How many RBCs are present in the circulatory system at one time?
Approximately 25 trillion
86
How is the approximate total number of RBCs calculated?
$5,000,000 \times 5 \times 1000 = 25,000,000,000,000$
87
What diagnostic test determines the number of RBCs?
Total red blood cell count
88
What are platelets?
Cell fragments broken off from larger cells called megakaryocytes.
89
What are megakaryocytes?
Large cells that produce platelets.
90
What does hemostasis mean?
The process of stopping bleeding.
91
How do platelets initially respond to vessel damage?
They adhere to the damaged vessel wall.
92
What do platelets secrete after vessel injury?
Chemical signals
93
What do platelet chemical signals help accomplish?
Recruit platelets, promote vasoconstriction, and contribute to inflammation.
94
What is coagulation?
A series of chemical reactions that prevent blood loss from damaged vessels.
95
What is hemostasis?
The process by which the body seals a ruptured blood vessel and prevents further blood loss.
96
What activates the body's hemostatic mechanisms?
Injury to a blood vessel
97
Which blood component is a key player in hemostasis?
Platelets
98
How many overlapping mechanisms promote hemostasis?
Three
99
What are the three mechanisms of hemostasis?
Vasoconstriction, platelet plug formation, and coagulation
100
What is the first step of hemostasis?
Vasoconstriction around the damaged tissue.
101
What is the second step of hemostasis?
Formation of a platelet plug
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What is the third step of hemostasis?
Coagulation and fibrin formation
103
What forms the blood clot during hemostasis?
Fibrin
104
What is the approximate normal WBC count?
5,000–11,000 WBCs/mm³
105
How does the number of WBCs compare with RBCs?
WBCs are much less numerous than RBCs.
106
Do WBCs have a nucleus and organelles?
Yes, they are complete cells.
107
What diseases do WBCs defend against?
Viruses, bacteria, and parasites
108
What causes WBCs to mobilize toward infection sites?
Chemical signals
109
What is phagocytosis?
The process of engulfing and digesting foreign particles.
110
What is diapedesis?
The process by which WBCs squeeze through capillary endothelial cells into infected tissues.
111
How do WBCs reach infected tissues?
Through diapedesis and migration guided by chemical signals.
112
What is the normal WBC count range?
5,000–11,000 WBCs/mm³
113
What is leukocytosis?
A WBC count of 11,000 or more/mm³, often associated with infection or inflammation.
114
What are granulocytes?
WBCs that contain granules.
115
Which WBCs are granulocytes?
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
116
What are agranulocytes?
WBCs that do not contain granules.
117
Which WBCs are agranulocytes?
Lymphocytes and monocytes
118
Which WBC is the most abundant?
Neutrophils
119
What is the approximate percentage of neutrophils among WBCs?
60%
120
What is the main function of neutrophils?
Rapidly respond to infection and perform phagocytosis.
121
What do neutrophils engulf?
Bacteria and tissue debris
122
What is the role of neutrophil granules?
They contain digestive enzymes that destroy bacteria.
123
What is pus composed of?
Dead neutrophils, other leukocytes, tissue debris, and dead bacteria
124
What is the shape of a neutrophil nucleus?
Multi-lobed
125
How do neutrophils reach infection sites?
By following chemical signals and undergoing diapedesis.
126
What is the approximate percentage of eosinophils among WBCs?
1–4%
127
What is the main immune function of eosinophils?
Defense against parasitic infections.
128
How do eosinophils help end allergic reactions?
They phagocytose allergens and degrade histamine and other inflammatory mediators.
129
When do eosinophil numbers increase?
During allergic reactions.
130
What substances do eosinophils degrade?
Histamine and other inflammatory mediators
131
What is the shape of an eosinophil nucleus?
Bi-lobed
132
What color are eosinophil granules?
Red-stained
133
What is the approximate percentage of basophils among WBCs?
0.5%
134
Which WBC is the rarest?
Basophils
135
What is the main function of basophils?
Mediating the inflammatory response.
136
What chemical do basophil granules contain?
Histamine
137
Are basophils strongly phagocytic?
No, they are weakly phagocytic.
138
What is the shape of a basophil nucleus?
Bi-lobed
139
What color are basophil granules?
Darkly stained
140
What is the approximate percentage of monocytes among WBCs?
4–8%
141
What happens to monocytes after they enter tissues?
They differentiate into macrophages or dendritic cells.
142
What is the main function of monocytes and macrophages?
Phagocytosis
143
What do macrophages engulf?
Foreign cells, molecules, bacteria, and debris
144
Which WBC is the largest?
Monocytes
145
What is the shape of a monocyte nucleus?
Kidney bean-shaped
146
Where do monocytes circulate before entering tissues?
The bloodstream
147
What is the approximate percentage of lymphocytes among WBCs?
20–45%
148
Where are lymphocytes found?
In the blood and lymphatic organs.
149
Which organs contain lymphocytes?
Lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, and thymus
150
What is the main function of lymphocytes?
Specific immunity and immune defense
151
What are the three major types of lymphocytes?
Natural killer cells, T cells, and B cells
152
Which lymphocytes provide innate immunity?
Natural killer (NK) cells
153
Which lymphocytes provide adaptive immunity?
T cells and B cells
154
What do T cells and B cells recognize?
Specific foreign molecules
155
What do natural killer cells destroy?
Virus-infected and cancerous cells
156
What is the shape of a lymphocyte nucleus?
It occupies most of the cytoplasm.
157
What color is lymphocyte cytosol?
Light blue
158
Which lymphocytes are involved in non-specific immunity?
Natural killer cells
159
Which lymphocytes are involved in specific, acquired immunity?
T cells and B cells
160
What mnemonic helps remember WBC abundance from most to least?
Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas
161
What does N represent in the WBC abundance mnemonic?
Neutrophils
162
What does L represent in the WBC abundance mnemonic?
Lymphocytes
163
What does M represent in the WBC abundance mnemonic?
Monocytes
164
What does E represent in the WBC abundance mnemonic?
Eosinophils
165
What does B represent in the WBC abundance mnemonic?
Basophils
166
What is the correct WBC abundance order from most to least?
Neutrophils → lymphocytes → monocytes → eosinophils → basophils
167
Which WBCs are the most abundant granulocytes?
Neutrophils
168
Which WBCs are the least abundant granulocytes?
Basophils
169
Which WBCs are agranulocytes?
Monocytes and lymphocytes
170
What is hematopoiesis?
The process of blood cell formation.
171
What is another name for hematopoiesis?
Hemopoiesis
172
Where does hematopoiesis occur?
The red bone marrow
173
How many blood cells are produced daily through hematopoiesis?
Approximately 100 billion
174
What happens during hematopoiesis?
Blood stem cells differentiate into mature blood cells that enter the bloodstream.
175
What are hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)?
The stem cells from which all blood cells arise.
176
What can hematopoietic stem cells develop into?
All types of blood cells
177
What are the two main progenitor cell lines produced by HSCs?
Myeloid and lymphoid stem cells
178
What happens to progenitor cells during blood cell development?
They divide and become committed to a specific cell lineage.
179
What is a blast cell?
A committed but immature blood cell.
180
What does the suffix -blast indicate?
An immature blood cell.
181
What is an erythroblast?
An immature RBC precursor.
182
What is a monoblast?
An immature monocyte precursor.
183
What does the suffix -cyte generally indicate?
A mature blood cell.
184
What does the suffix -phil generally indicate in blood cell names?
A mature granulocyte.
185
What is polycythemia?
Overproduction of red blood cells.
186
How does polycythemia affect blood viscosity?
It increases blood viscosity.
187
Why is polycythemia dangerous for circulation?
Thicker blood makes it harder for the heart to circulate blood.
188
What is anemia?
A deficiency in RBCs and/or hemoglobin.
189
How does anemia affect oxygen delivery?
It decreases the amount of oxygen delivered to body tissues.
190
What are the three general causes of anemia?
Blood loss, decreased RBC production, and excessive RBC destruction
191
What is leukemia?
A cancer involving white blood cells.
192
What happens to leukocyte numbers in leukemia?
They increase.
193
What are the classifications of leukemia?
Acute or chronic; myeloid or lymphoid
194
What is leukopenia (leukocytopenia)?
An abnormally low number of leukocytes.
195
What causes leukopenia?
Too few white blood cells are produced.
196
Why are patients with leukopenia immunodeficient?
They cannot adequately fight infections.
197
What is lymphoma?
A cancer involving B cells and T cells.
198
Where can malignant lymphocytes accumulate in lymphoma?
The lymph nodes, spleen, and liver
199
Why are patients with lymphoma immunodeficient?
The malignant cells are nonfunctional.
200
What are the two major types of lymphoma?
Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
201
What is thrombocytosis?
An abnormally high platelet count.
202
Why is thrombocytosis dangerous?
It may trigger unwanted blood clots.
203
What is thrombocytopenia?
An abnormally low platelet count.
204
How does thrombocytopenia affect blood clotting?
Blood does not clot properly
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