immunology

liquid matrix, made of water, salts, sugars, proteins, lipids, waste
55% of blood volume

red blood cells, concave shape, no nuclei in mature form, transport oxygen

white blood cells, fight infections

leukocytes that engulf microorganisms

leukocytes that trigger immune response against foreign substances

fragments of bone marrow cells, no nuclei, form patch to seal wounds and trigger other clotting factors

genetic disorder that interrupts any step in clotting process

formed by stem cells in red marrow of bones, old cells destroyed by phagocytes in spleen and liver

stimulates Erythrocyte production, can be used to treat anemia

break in blood vessel attracts platelets, starts coagulation
platelets and damaged tissue release clotting factors, chain reaction set off
prothrombin activator turns prothrombin into thrombin, thrombin converts fibrinogen (soluble) into fibrin (insoluble)
fibrin is in form of fibers and forms mesh across wound, blood cells get caught in mesh forming semi-solid clot which becomes scab when exposed to air

blood clot in coronary artery, clot blocks oxygen delivery to heart, reducing ATP production and heart muscle contraction gets uncoordinated

blood carries oxygen, nutrient, CO2, hormones, antibodies, urea, heat

phagocytes engulf pathogens through endocytosis and digest with lysosomes, waste excreted through exocytosis, many phagocytes at a site form pus

first line of defense: forms physical barrier and secrets some lactic and fatty acid (making sebum), making skin acidic, prevents bacterial growth

nose, trachea, urethra, bacteria can be killed by lysozome, a mucus enzyme
pathogens get caught in mucus swept out by cilia

organism or virus that causes disease

proteins that recognize and bind to certain antigens and facilitate their destruction. specific for each antigen (y shaped)
produced by lymphocytes

any chemical that stimulates an immune response, antibody generator
can be many substances on surface of pathogen, like on cell walls of bacteria, fungi, virus coats, part identified by antibody

retrovirus made of RNA that causes AIDS, causes destruction of helper T cells
original infection: flu-like symptoms as immune system puts up aggressive response, most of HIV is eliminated by some integrates with and hides in infected cells and immune system produces antibodies to HIV that can be detected
people can infect others without knowing they have virus
eventually immune system compromised enough that body succumbs to opportunistic diseases

diseases that would normally be easily fought off by a healthy immune system, happen more often and severe in people with HIV
karposi's sarcoma, pneumonia, esophagal candidiasis

through blood, semen, breast milk, etc. unprotected sex, sharing needles, birth, breast feeding, unsafe blood products
not through saliva, sneezing, casual contact
abrasions in skin, membranes make infection easier

Cocktail of antiretroviral drugs (ART) helps keep viral load low and hopefully helps keep t-cell count up
HIV mutates rapidly and sometimes antiretrovirals stop working
new treatments, protential vaccine getting closer

stigma due to disapproval, discriination towards different risk groups, factors
US: men who have sex with men, intravaneous drug users are highest risk groups
african americans 41% new HIV diagnoses, latinx 21%
AIDS orphans in subsaharan africa, limited resources for treatment and medication

found in all animals, fast response to pathogens
includes barrier defenses (skin, mucus) and some internal defenses
innate immune cells have small group of receptor proteins that recognize certain invader molecules or structures that are common to microbes but not animals
includes many phagocytes

2nd defense system, found only in vertebrates
activated after innate system and proceeds more slowly
enhanced by previous exposure
vast array of receptors, very specific
lymphocytes: t cells (mature in thymus) and b cells (mature in bone marrow), both recognize and inactivate foreign cells and contribute to "immunological memory"

macrophages engulf antigens, process them, attach to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins on membrane, MHC preotein with antigen is moved to exterior of cell and displayed on outer surface
regular body cells can become antigen presenting cells after being invaded by a pathogen
helper t cells have receptors that bind to presented antigens, and when it binds, macrophage sends signal that activates helper t cell
b cell attaches to helper t cell
activated helper t sends signal to active b
activated b divided by mitosis to form clones of its cells, which have increased cytoplasmic volume (plasma cells)
extensive rough ER in plasma cells needs to produce large amounts of antibody, antibodies mark antigens that are in body fluids

process of choosing and making correct antibodies

specific immune system

presented antigens (and helper t cells) can trigger cytotoxic t cells (killer t cells)
cytotoxic ts suck out and kill cells that are marked with antigen by secreting proteins that cause cell rupture and cell death
goes after cells that have already been marked with pathogen (cell-mediated)

most of b and t cells get used to fight disease, gone within a few weeks
some b and ts kept in reserve as memory cells to fight future disease, allow for much faster response than first time and give long term immunity

process of generating a state of immunity artificially
inactive or weakened form of pathogen is administered which induces b and t cell response and immunological memory
virus causing cowpox used as vaccination against human smallpox
boosters often needed to strengthen immune response

first official vaccination done by Edward Jenner in 1796 using cowpox to create immunity against smallpox in humans
smallpox eventually eradicated in 1977, helped by the fact that there is no animal resovoir for smallpox, symptoms emerge quickly, immunity si long lasting

live attended, inactivated (killed), toxoid (inactivated toxin), subunit/conjucate, mRNA

control of epidemics, pandemics (protection of herd)
eradication of human (smallpox)
prevention of deaths
lower healthcare costs
lower disability rates
immunization is most effective public health intervention

primary reaction are minor (redness at injection site, swelling)
rarely, a severe allegric reaction
possible overload immune system
no link to autism

active immunity is developed by organism itself after body's immune system has been stimulated by antigens (vaccination or getting diease naturally)

receiving antibodies from another organism
pregnant women give antibodies to fetuses, sometimes injected in emergencies

released by mast cells (immune cells found in connective tissue) in response to infection, can also be released by bosphils circulating in blood
cause small blood vessels in area of infection to swell, making them leaky
increasesfluid flow, allows immune components to get out of vessels to do their jobs
also contribute to allergic symptoms like itching, sneezing, anaphylaxsis (immune resopnse to something not harmful)

make pathogen more recognizable to phagocytes

can prevent virus from docking on host cells

prevents toxins from affecting susceptible cells

cascade of reaction that leads to membrane rupture

causes pathogen to stick together so they can't enter cells and cause hemolysis in blood cells (can be dangerous with incorrect blood transfusion)

antigen b on surface, antibodies to antigen a (receives o, b)

antigen a, antibodies to antigen b (receives o, a)

both antigens, antibodies to neither (receives all)

neither antigens, both antibodies (only receives o)

results in agglutinaton and hemolysis, where red blood cells are destroyed and blood can coagulate in vessels

used to make lots of a single ype of of antibody
antigen corresponded to desired antibody injected into animal, animal's immune system attacks
b cells that produce antibody extracted from animal, b cells fused with myeloma cells and make hybridoma cells that can divide indefinitely and can make antibody
hybridoma cultured, antibodies extracted and purified

treatment of anthrax, diagnosis of malaria, cancer recognition and treatment, pregancy tests, HIV test, antibodies for rabies victims, some snake antivenoms, covid treatment

chemicals produced by microorganisms to kill or control growth of other microogranisms (penicillin produced by fungus to kill bacteria)
many bacterial disorders successfully treated with antibiotics
don't work well with viral diseases since viruses use host cells to reproduce and for metabolism and don't have their own metabolism
antibiotics designed to cripple prokaryote metabolisms, so don't affect viruses

grew fungus in conditions that stimulated it to produce penicillin, penicillin killed bacteria
tested on mice, mive injected with penicillin lived, and started testing humans shortly after
could have been severe side effects, unpure samples, however patients they used were all on the point of death and some were cured

strains of bacteria evolve with genes with resistance to antibiotics
doctors only prescribing antibiotics for serious bacterial infections, preventing cross-infection, not using antibiotics in livestock

pathogen that can cross a species barrier- growth of contact between animals and humans (humans living near livestock, disruption of habitats)
nwest nile virus, lyme disease, rabies, bubonic plague

infected an 8 year old wih smallpox, who recovered after a quick illness, then infected him again to show he had the ability to resist the disease
first person to use humans to test vaccine, did not do any preliminary labratory or animal studies