English Preparation

. 1) Common nouns
Common nouns are words that refer to undefined or generic people, places, or things. For example, the country is a common noun that refers to a generic place while the word Canada is not a common noun because it refers to a specific place. Common nouns are only capitalized when they begin sentences or are used in the names or titles of something, as in Grand Canyon or Iron Man.

common nouns:
house, cat, girl, foot, country
2) Proper nouns
Proper nouns help distinguish a specific person, place, or thing. These words should be capitalized. The names and titles of things are always proper nouns, such as the brand name Starbucks and the personal name Jenny.

proper nouns:
Spain, Fido, Sony
3) Singular nouns
Singular nouns are nouns that refer to only one person, place or thing. For example, a cat is one animal and a banana is one fruit.

singular nouns:
house, cat, girl, foot, country
4) Plural nouns
A plural noun refers to more than one of something. Many singular nouns just need an S added at the end to make them plural (e.g., bee becomes bees). For some nouns that already end with an S, you may need to add -es to the end to make their plural forms (e.g., classes and buses). Some singular nouns also change spelling when made plural (e.g. countries and babies).

regular plural nouns:
houses, cats, girls, countries
Not all nouns follow this pattern. Those that become plural in other ways are called irregular plural nouns. Some examples are man and men, wolf and wolves, foot and feet, and sheep and … sheep.

irregular plural nouns:
person and people
life and lives
mouse and mice
tooth and teeth
5) Concrete nouns
A concrete noun is something that can be perceived through the five senses. If you can see, hear, touch, taste, or smell something, it uses a concrete noun.

concrete nouns:
table, apple, rabbit, ear
6) Abstract nouns
Abstract nouns are intangible ideas that can’t be perceived with the five senses, such as social concepts, political theories, and character traits. For example, the abstract noun anger refers to an emotion and the abstract noun courage refers to a quality a person has.

abstract nouns:
love, creativity, democracy
7) Collective nouns
A collective noun is a noun that functions as a singular noun while referring to a group of people or things. A collective noun refers to a group that functions as one unit or performs the same action at the same time. For example: the team plays in the main gym.

collective nouns:
crowd, flocks, committee, a sum of money 8) Compound nouns
A compound noun combines two or more words into one. Compound nouns can appear as a single word, multiple words used separately, or words connected by hyphens.

compound nouns:
dry-cleaning, jack-in-the-box, toothpaste, haircut, output, ice cream, potato chip
9) Countable nouns
A countable noun (also known as a count noun) is one that you can count. When you have three books or 10 pennies, you are describing a noun that is countable.

countable nouns:
table, apple, rabbit, ear
10) Uncountable nouns
An uncountable noun (also known as a mass noun) is one that cannot be counted. For example, happiness cannot be counted. You don’t say that you have “a happiness” or “three happinesses.” Uncountable nouns typically don’t have plural forms.

uncountable nouns:
salt, seafood, luggage, advice

Possessive Pronouns: There words mine, yours, hers, his, its, theirs, ours, yours, and theirs are called possessive pronouns.
This car is mine.
The time is yours.
Reflexive Pronouns: The
words myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves are called reflexive pronouns.
Maryam has hurt herself.
Don’t cut yourself.
Demonstrative Pronouns: The words this, these, that, and those are called demonstrative
pronouns.
This is my car.
These are my flowers.
Interrogative Pronouns: The words who, whom, whose, what, and which are called interrogative pronouns. We ask questions by using these pronouns.
Whom is she talking to?
Which do you prefer? Possessive pronoun examples

mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
Possessive pronouns used in sentences

That toy on the shelf is mine.
All of the houses in our neighborhood look the same, but ours is the only one with a satellite dish.
Wendy and Ronald separated the french fries into two piles: the left one was hers and the right one was his.
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns are pronouns that we use to refer to people and, sometimes, animals. The pronouns it, they, and them can also apply to objects.

Personal pronoun examples

I, you, she, he, it, we, they, me, us, them
Personal pronouns used in sentences

I am afraid of mice.
The toaster gets really hot when it heats bread.
My cats are friendly, so you can safely pet them.
Do you know the history behind using they and themself as singular pronouns? Find out more and why they are making a comeback now.

Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses to independent clauses.

Relative pronoun examples

who, whom, which, what, that
Relative pronouns used in sentences

I need to find a person who can read Swedish.
She doesn’t want to eat a meal that is too spicy.
This book, which ends on a cliffhanger, is really exciting.
Reflexive pronouns
A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun used as an object of a verb that refers to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb.

Reflexive pronoun examples

myself, yourself, itself, herself, himself, ourselves, themselves
Reflexive pronouns used in sentences

Ken looked at himself in the mirror.
I like to cheer myself up with desserts.
The silly clowns made fools of themselves.
Intensive pronouns
Intensive pronouns refer back to the subject in order to add emphasis. Intensive pronouns are identical in appearance to reflexive pronouns.

Intensive pronoun examples

myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, themselves
Intensive pronouns used in sentences

I built my house myself.
The children made the cookies themselves.
Often, the stress of giving a speech is worse than the speech itself.
Indefinite pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that doesn’t specifically identify who or what it is referring to.

Indefinite pronoun examples

some, somebody, anyone, anywhere, nothing, everybody
Indefinite pronouns used in sentences

This note could have been written by anybody.
Someone ate my lunch.
The water splashed everywhere.


Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are used to point to specific things.

Demonstrative pronoun examples

this, that, these, those
Demonstrative pronouns used in sentences

This is my favorite shirt.
I don’t know what that is, but it definitely isn’t friendly.
I need you to fix these.
Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are pronouns used to ask questions about unknown people or things.

Interrogative pronoun examples

who, whom, what, which, whose
Interrogative pronouns used in sentences

Who wrote this letter?
What is an amphibian?
Which is the correct answer?
Reciprocal pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns express mutual relationships or actions.

Reciprocal pronoun examples

each other, one another

1. Action verbs
Action verbs, as their name says, are used to refer to actions. These can refer to physical actions that are performed with bodies or objects, such as jump, hit, or sing, or mental actions that we use our brains to perform, such as think, consider, or memorize. Most verbs you will find are action verbs.

List of action verbs

run
swim
help
ignore
believe
Examples of action verbs in a sentence

Each of these sentences uses action verbs. You’ll see that each verb is referring to a physical or mental action.

I work at a factory.
Cats chase mice.
We listened to the woman’s amazing story.
2. Stative verbs
Unlike action verbs, stative verbs refer to conditions or states of being. Generally speaking, we use stative verbs to describe things like qualities, states of existence, opinions, beliefs, and emotions. When used in a sentence, stative verbs do not refer to actions. It is important to know that some verbs can be used as either action or stative verbs depending on their meaning in the sentence. We are less likely to use stative verbs in the continuous verb tenses.

List of stative verbs

love
want
own
have
resemble
Get to know the stative verb have even better with this examination of has vs. have.

Examples of stative verbs in a sentence

These sentences all use stative verbs. You’ll notice that none of these verbs refer to actions.

The mansion has five bathrooms.
Allie loves her younger sisters.
My car needs an oil change.
3. Transitive verbs
A transitive verb is a verb that is accompanied by a direct object in a sentence. The direct object is the noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that is having something done to it by the subject of the sentence. Both action and stative verbs can have direct objects, which means they can both be used as transitive verbs.

Examples of transitive verbs in a sentence

The following sentences all contain examples of transitive verbs. As you read each one, consider what the direct object of the sentence is.

Leonardo ate a delicious pepperoni pizza.
The wealthy man bought three paintings.
She really hates broccoli.
4. Intransitive verbs
The opposite of a transitive verb is an intransitive verb. A verb is an intransitive verb if it is not used with a direct object. Remember, only nouns, pronouns, and noun phrases can be direct objects. Prepositional phrases, adjectives, and adverbs cannot be used as direct objects. Once again, both action and stative verbs can be used as intransitive verbs.

Examples intransitive verbs in a sentence

Each of these sentences uses intransitive verbs. Look carefully and you will see that none of these sentences have direct objects.

Airplanes fly.
The children slept while the adults worked.
The terrified monkeys hid in the trees after they saw the gigantic hungry snake.
5. Linking verbs
Linking verbs are a special type of stative verb whose name gives a big clue as to what they do. Linking verbs are used to link a subject with a subject complement. A subject complement describes or identifies the subject of the sentence or clause. Linking verbs can function as intransitive verbs, which do not take direct objects.

List of words used as linking verbs

be
become
seem
appear
grow
Examples of linking verbs in a sentence

In each of the following sentences, linking verbs are used to link a subject with a subject complement.

Mike is a great dancer.
That gold watch looks expensive.
Suddenly, the mall got really crowded.
6. Helping verbs (auxiliary verbs)
Helping verbs, also called auxiliary verbs, are helpful verbs that work with other verbs to change the meaning of a sentence. A helping verb combines with a main verb in order to accomplish different goals. These include changing the tense of the verb or altering the mood of a sentence.

List of words used as helping verbs

be
have
do
can
will
Examples of helping verbs in a sentence

Each of the following sentences uses a helping verb. Take a moment to consider what each sentence is saying and how a helping verb contributes to the meaning of the sentence.

The musician has performed in concerts all over the world.
My cat is getting slow in her old age.
Cheetahs can run incredibly fast.
7. Modal verbs
Modal verbs are a subgroup of helping verbs that are used to give a sentence a specific mood. Each modal verb is used differently, and they can express concepts such as ability, necessity, possibility, or permission.

List of verbs used as modal verbs

can
may
might
must
would
Examples of modal verbs in a sentence

The following sentences all use modal verbs to express a certain tone. You’ll see that each sentence would have a different meaning (or wouldn’t make sense) without the modal verb.

Once you finish your homework, you may play outside.
We must carefully add two eggs to the mixing bowl.
I would go to the movies if I wasn’t busy working.
Learn about one certain mood that confuses many: the subjunctive mood.

8. Regular verbs
A verb is considered a regular verb if its past tense form and past participle ends in -ed, -d, or the verb is a -t variant verb. For example, the verb look is a regular verb because both its past tense form and past participle is looked. Sometimes, regular verbs may slightly change spelling. For example, the past tense and past participle of cry is cried.

List of regular verbs

jump becomes jumped
slip becomes slipped
try becomes tried
sleep becomes slept
lend becomes lent
Examples of regular verbs in a sentence

Each of the following sentences use regular verbs in either their past tense form or as a past participle.

He walked two miles to the post office.
We purchased all of the supplies that we needed for the camping trip.
Tiffany had noticed something strange about Marcus’s story.
9. Irregular verbs
An irregular verb is a verb whose past tense and past participle form doesn’t end in -ed, -d, and doesn’t use the –t variant. Often, the spelling of these verbs changes dramatically or may not even change at all.

List of irregular verbs

be becomes am, is, are, was, were, be, being, and been
eat becomes ate, eaten
fly becomes flew, flown
catch becomes caught, caught
set becomes set, set
Examples of irregular verbs in a sentence

The following sentences use irregular verbs. Despite being used in the past tense or as a past participle, none of these verbs end in -ed, -d, or are a -t variant verb.

Cindy knew all of the right answers.
This junky computer has given me nothing but headaches since I bought it.
The workers took the furniture out of the moving truck.
10. Phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are combinations of a verb with prepositions and/or adverbs that have a different meaning from the individual words used to form them. For example, the verb shut means “to close,” and the adverb down means “not up” or “in a descending direction.” However, the phrasal verb shut down means to stop the operation of something.

List of phrasal verbs

ask for
put up with
talk down to
lock up
cut across
Examples of phrasal verbs in a sentence

The following sentences show how we can use phrasal verbs. Sometimes, we can separate out the words of a phrasal verb and the sentence is still grammatically correct.

The frustrated business owner closed down his store.
Dave loves to show off his baseball trophies.
My mother always told me it is a good idea to put some money away in case of emergencies.
11. Infinitives
Our last type of verb isn’t actually a verb at all—sorry about that! However, infinitives look a lot like verbs because they are derived from them. An infinitive of a verb is identical to the base form of the verb. For example, the infinitive form of the verb open is open. Typically, we use infinitives with the word to in order to form infinitive phrases. Infinitive phrases can be used for a variety of reasons, such as to act like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

Examples of infinitive phrases in a sentence

All of the following sentences use infinitive phrases. In order, the infinitive phrases are acting as a noun (nominal infinitive), an adjective (adjectival infinitive), and an adverb (adverbial infinitive).

To play guitar in a rock band is my goal.
If you are looking for the best restaurants in town, Luis is the person to ask.
The writing in the letter was too small to see.

1. Comparative adjectives
Comparative adjectives are used to compare two different people or things to each other. Some examples of comparative adjectives include words such as smaller, faster, more expensive, and less reasonable.

Comparative adjective examples

Whales are larger animals than dolphins.
We moved to a cheaper apartment.
The sequel was even more incredible than the first movie.
2. Superlative adjectives
Superlative adjectives are used to compare more than two people or things by indicating which one is the most supreme or extreme. Some examples of superlative adjectives include words such as smartest, loudest, most impressive, and least valuable.

Superlative adjective examples

Adrian is the fastest member of our team.
Out of all of my books, this one is the oldest.
We are trying to figure out the least confusing way to explain the lesson to the new students.
3. Predicate adjectives
Predicate adjectives are adjectives that appear in the predicate of a sentence as a subject complement rather than directly next to the nouns or pronouns that they modify. Predicate adjectives follow linking verbs in sentences and clauses.

Predicate adjective examples

Andrea is tall.
Freddy became angry.
The steak looks delicious.
Understand the difference between subjects and predicates here.

4. Compound adjectives
Compound adjectives are adjectives that are formed from multiple words, which are usually connected by hyphens. Some examples of compound adjectives include never-ending, cross-eyed, and run-of-the-mill.

Compound adjective examples

She had enough of the double-dealing salesman.
My happy-go-lucky daughter loved our trip to Disneyland.
The better-off members of the city live by the river.
5. Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives are often used to express possession or ownership. The most commonly used possessive adjectives are my, your, its, her, his, our, their, and whose.

Possessive adjective examples

My favorite food is pizza.
Sydney spent the day with her parents.
Canadians celebrated their team’s victory at the Olympics.
6. Demonstrative adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives are used to express relative positions in space and time. The most commonly used demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these, and those.

Demonstrative adjective examples

This watch is cheaper than that one.
This weekend is going to be really fun.
Watch out for those prickly rose bushes next to you.
7. Proper adjectives
Proper adjectives are adjectives formed from proper nouns. In general, proper adjectives are commonly used to say that something is related to a specific person or place. Proper adjectives include words such as African, Napoleonic, and Shakespearian.

Proper adjective examples

He was reading a Russian newspaper.
I think Haitian food is tasty.
We studied the history of Victorian England in school today.
8. Participial adjectives
Participial adjectives are adjectives that are based on participles, which are words that usually end in -ed or -ing and derive from verbs. Participial adjectives include words like amazing, impressed, and fascinating.

Participial adjective examples

Travis was late for his swimming lessons.
Please hand me my reading glasses.
The silly clown cheered up the bored children.
Take part in this discussion on the forms and uses of participles if you want to learn more.

9. Limiting adjectives
Limiting adjectives are adjectives that restrict a noun or pronoun rather than describe any of its characteristics or qualities. Limiting adjectives overlap with other types of adjectives such as demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives. Limiting adjectives include words such as these, your, and some.

Limiting adjective examples

I bought some eggs at the store.
She found three pennies under the couch cushions.
Take a look at that house over there.
10. Descriptive adjectives
Descriptive adjectives are adjectives that describe the characteristics, traits, or qualities of a noun or pronoun. Most adjectives are descriptive adjectives. Words such as purple, friendly, and attractive are examples of descriptive adjectives.

Descriptive adjective examples

A lot of interesting people visit this park.
She told a scary story.
The leaves turned orange and red.
11. Interrogative adjectives
Interrogative adjectives are adjectives that are used to ask questions. The interrogative adjectives are what, which, and whose.

Interrogative adjective examples

What color is your favorite?
Which button turns off the lights?
Whose turn is it to wash the cat?
12. Attributive adjectives
Attributive adjectives are adjectives that are directly next to the noun and pronoun that they modify. Usually, attributive adjectives come directly before nouns and pronouns but they modify. But they can sometimes appear after them.

Attributive adjective examples

She has beautiful handwriting.
The hungry gorilla ate the fresh mangoes.
Keith gave his dad something special for his birthday.
13. Distributive adjectives
Distributive adjectives are used to refer to members of a group individually. Examples of distributive adjectives include each, every, either, and neither.

Distributive adjective examples

Each puppy got their own little doghouse.
Every member of the team scored a goal.
I’ll be happy if either candidate wins the election.

Types of Adverbs

Adverbs of Manner

An adverb of manner will explain how an action is carried out. Very often adverbs of manner are adjectives with -ly added to the end, but this is certainly not always the case. In fact, some adverbs of manner will have the same spelling as the adjective form.
Some examples of adverbs of manner include:

Slowly
Rapidly
Clumsily
Badly
Diligently
Sweetly
Warmly
Sadly
Adverb of manner examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

She passed the exam easily.
They walk quickly to catch the train.
The dinner party went badly.
John answered the question correctly.
Notice how the adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the adjectives bad, correct and quick, although there is a slight spelling change when forming an adverb with the adjective easy.

As mentioned, some adverbs of manner take the same spelling as the adjective and never add an -ly to the end:

The boys had worked hard.
The car drives
Julia dances well.
Adverbs of place

An adverb of place, sometimes called spatial adverbs, will help explain where an action happens. Adverbs of place will be associated with the action of the verb in a sentence, providing context for direction, distance and position: southeast, everywhere, up, left, close by, back, inside, around. These terms don’t usually end in -ly.

Adverbs of place examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

Directions

New York is located north of Philadelphia.
They traveled down the mountainside.
First, I looked here, and then I looked there, but I can’t find them anywhere.
Notice that here and there are often used at the beginning of a sentence to express emphasis or in exclamation.

Here comes the sun.
There is love in the air.
Here you are!
Many times, adverbs of place can be used as prepositions as well. The difference is, when the phrase is used as an adverb, it is modifying a verb; when it is used as a preposition, it is always followed by a noun.

New York is located north of Philadelphia -> New York is on the map.
They travelled down river -> They travelled in the first compartment.
That puppy was walking around by itself-> We put a collar around its neck.
Distance

There was a deli
Jane is moving far away.
Carly is sitting close to me.
Position

The treasure lies underneath the box.
The cat is sleeping on the bed.
Why are you standing in the middle of the dancefloor?
In addition, some adverbs of position will refer to a direction of movement. These often end in -ward or -wards.

Oscar travelled onward to Los Angeles.
Hannah looked upwards to the heavens.
Molly, move forward to the front of the queue, please.


Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of frequency are used to express time or how often something occurs. Adverbs of frequency can be split two main groups. The first, adverbs of indefinite frequency, are terms that have an unclear meaning as to how long are how often something occurs: usually, always, normally. These adverbs will usually be placed after the main verb or between the auxiliary verb and infinitive.

Adverbs of frequency examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

The adverb is usually placed before the main verb.
I can normally make the shot.
I will always love
Adverbs of definite frequency will usually be placed at the end of the sentence.

We get paid hourly.
I come here
The situation seems to change monthly.
The newspaper is bought daily.
Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of time, while seemingly similar to adverbs of frequency, tell us when something happens. Adverbs of time are usually placed at the end of a sentence.

Adverbs of time examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

I will see you
Harvey forgot his lunch yesterday and again today.
I have to go now.
We first met Julie last year.
While it’s almost always correct to have the adverb of time at the end of the sentence, you can place it at the start of the sentence to put a different emphasis on the time if it is important to the context.

Last year was the worst year of my life.
Tomorrow our fate will be sealed.
Yesterday my troubles seemed so far away.
Adverbs of Purpose

Adverbs of purpose, sometimes called adverbs of reason, help to describe why something happened. They can come in the form of individual words – so, since, thus, because – but also clauses – so that, in order to. Notice in the examples that the adverbs of purpose are used to connect sentences that wouldn’t make sense if they were formed alone.

Adverbs of purpose examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

I was sick, thus didn’t go to work today.
I started jogging so that I wouldn’t be late.
Because I was late, I jogged a little faster.
Since it’s your birthday, I will buy you a gift.
Positions of Adverbs

The positions of adverbs are not a fixed or set thing. As you have seen, adverbs can appear in different position in a sentence. However, there are some rules that help us decide where an adverb should be positioned. The rules will be different depending on whether the adverb is acting to modify an adjective or another adverb, a verb or what type of adverb it is.

Positional adverb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

Adverb position with adjectives and other adverbs

These adverbs will usually be placed before the adjective or adverb being modified:

We gave them a really tough match. The adverb really modifies the adjective tough.
It was quite windy that night. The adverb quite modifies the adjective windy.
We don’t go to the movies terribly often. The adverb terribly modifies the adverb often.
Adverb position with verbs

This can be a bit trickier because, it will depend on the type of adverb – place, position, time etc. – and there are many exceptions to the rules. However, a basic set of guidelines is shown below:

Adverbs of manner or place are usually positioned at the end of the sentence:

She laughed timidly.
I stroked the cat gently.
Janine lived here.
There is money everywhere.
As mentioned, if the adverb is of definite time it will be placed at the end of the sentence.

I did it yesterday.
We can discuss it tomorrow.
Let’s go to Paris next week.
However, if it is an indefinite period of time, it will go between the subject and main verb.

We often go to Paris in the springtime.
Debbie regularly swims here.
Bobby and Audrey always loved fishing by the lake.
Order of Adverbs

Adverb order is so important it has clear rules. It’s already mentioned that some adverbs will act to modify another, but how do you decide the structure of a sentence with several adverbs? Thankfully, there is a simple set of rules to follow, called the order of adverbs. Handily, the order of adverbs, sometimes also called the royal order of adverbs, can help us determine sentence structure too. In short, the adverbs get preference (are placed first) in the following order:

Adverbs of manner.
Adverbs of place.
Adverbs of frequency.
Adverbs of time.
Adverbs of purpose.
Consider this sentence:

I run (verb) quickly (manner) down the road (place) every morning (frequency) before school (time) because (purpose) I might miss the bus.

While it is good to remember the order of adverbs, there is always flexibility with language, and we have already mentioned that adverbs of time and frequency can be placed at the start of a sentence to change the emphasis. So, bottom line: think of the order of adverbs as more of a guideline than a rule that can’t be broken.

PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word that connects one thing with another, showing how they are related.
Prepositions tell us about time, position, or place.
Some examples of prepositions are words like ‘in,’ ‘at,’ ‘on,’ ‘of,’ ‘to,’ and ‘from.’

She is in love.
The book was on the table. I am from France.
He is calling you. Prepositions of Time – used to show when something is happening.
For example:

We will be meeting on Friday.
The supermarket will be closed from 9 p.m. to 9 a.m.
Can you come after some time?
We have been asked to work from home until the end of May.
The whole country was asked to stay home during the pandemic to ensure safety and well-being.
Prepositions of Place – indicate the place or position of something.
For example:

I have kept the book I borrowed from you on the table.
Henry hid behind the door.
The dog jumped over the fence.
Can you place the red roses in between the white daisies?
He was waiting in front of the EB office.
Prepositions of Direction – used to denote the direction in which something travels or moves.
For example:

The girl ran toward her father the moment she saw him.
Jerry jumped into the river to help his sister.
Veena passed the book to Priya.
When will Salvia be returning from London?
Neena lives across the street.
Prepositions of Location – employed to denote the location of a particular object.
For example:

Kenny would be staying at his cousin’s place for the weekend.
Make sure you keep all the toys back in its place after you play.
I lay on the floor for a really long time.
Prepositions of Spatial Relationship – used to denote an object’s movement away from the source and towards a source.
For example:

Navya sat leaning against the wall.
The circus was stationed opposite the children’s park.
Lakshmi sat beneath the trees.
Shankar sat beside the stairs.
We spent the evening walking around the lake.
Prepositional Phrase – a combination of a preposition and a noun(the object it is affecting).
For example:

See to it that you reach the venue on time.
The medicines you asked for are out of stock.
Why don’t we try taking classes outside for a change.
Make sure you fill in all the forms at once.
Salmaan was able to finish it only with the help of his friends.

Conjunction CONJUNCTION
A conjunction is a linking word that is used to connect clauses or sentences. For example, and, or, but, as, if.
Conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses together.
a teacher and students.
a male or female?
☛Words such as before, after, as, when, while, until, and since, are conjunctions of time.
Maryam could play guitar before she was four.
She always brushes her teeth after eating her meal.
There are four categories of conjunctions:
Coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Correlative conjunctions: both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not onlyut, whether/or. Subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, as though, because, before, by the time, even if, even though, if, in order that, in case, in the event that, now that, once, only, only if, provided that, since, so, supposing, that, then, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether or not, 1. Coordinating Conjunctions:
Coordinating conjunction definition is as follows, the conjunction that joins two elements that have equal syntactic importance and grammatical rank. They can join two independent clauses, two phrases, two adjectives, two verbs or two nouns.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions, they are - for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. The easiest way to remember these conjunctions is with an acronym called FANBOYS.

Among all these conjunctions “so” can be used both as coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. As coordinating conjunction, it can link two independent clauses and as subordinate conjunction, it can link two unequal clauses.

Rules for using the Coordinating Conjunctions:
There are a few rules which have to be followed during the use of suitable conjunctions along with the usage of words in specific situations:

When the coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, a comma has to be used before that conjunction.

Example: I wanted to go shopping, but my friend wants to go to a movie.

When coordinating conjunction is joining two phrases or words, a comma is not used before the conjunction.

Example: I like to ride bikes and swim.

A comma is optional when coordinating conjunction is used with more than two items.

2. Correlative Conjunctions:
These are a kind of tag-team conjunctions. They come in pairs where they are used in different places.

Correlative Conjunction Examples: either/or, neither/nor, not onlyut also, whether/or, notut.

I either want a chocolate cake or pastry.
She neither likes tea nor coffee.

3. Subordinating Conjunctions:
The subordinating conjunction meaning and examples are provided here. These are the types of conjunctions that help to join dependent clauses with independent clauses. Some of the common subordinating conjunctions are “since, because, though, as, although, while, and whereas”. Sometimes the adverbs can also act as conjunctions such as, “until, after, or before”.

Example: I can stay here until the clock strikes nine. Here the word “until” acts as a conjunction that connects two ideas such as, “can stay here” and “clock strikes nine”. Here the first idea is independent of the second one hence, “can stay here” is an independent clause, and “clock strikes nine” is a dependent clause.

It is not mandatory to have the subordinating conjunctions in the middle of the sentence, but it has to be a part of the dependent clause. The dependent clause is also called the subordinate clause or subordinating sentences.

The dependent clause has two specific qualities,

It cannot act as it’s a sentence.
It depends on the independent clause to provide a complete meaning.

Types of Subordinating Conjunctions
The subordinating conjunctions are categorized by meaning:

Time: When the main clause is performed or will be performed, the time-related conjunctions establish a period.

Example: as soon as, once, before, still, whenever.
I will clean the house after the relatives are gone.

Concession: By providing the additional information the concession conjunctions help to redefine the meaning of the main clause. It highlights the action that has happened in the hindrance or obstacle.

Example: although, even though, as though.
She wrote my article even though it is assigned to me.

Comparison: It helps to establish the connection between the words by providing a correlation.

Example: though, whereas, just as, in contrast to.
You will complete the work fastly whereas I need some more time.

Cause: It defines the reason the main clause was performed.

Example: because, since, so that.
My father always inspires me because he believes in me.

Condition: It provides the rules under which the main clause works.

Example: If, in case, even if, unless.
In case my sister suggests buying this dress, then I will go for it.

Place: It defines the place where the action or the activities occur.

Example: wherever, whereas.
I will place the conjunctions wherever it is necessary.

INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word that expresses an emotion, a sudden, strong feeling such as surprise, pain, or pleasure.
☛It is often followed by an exclamation point.
Cheers!
Ouch!
Oh my God! Oh, dear! Good luck! Help!
Gosh!
Hey!
Look out! Volatile interjection:

Volatile interjections are the words or phrases used to express sudden feelings. For example, ‘ouch’, ‘wow’, ‘oops’, etc. Volatile interjections do not need a response from the person you are talking to.

Volatile Interjection in the sentence:

Ouch! That hurt.

Wow! That’s amazing.

Emotive interjection:

Emotive interjections are the words or phrases used to express an emotion. For example, ‘I’m so happy, ‘I’m so sad, ‘I’m so angry. Emotive interjections usually need a response from the person you are talking to.

Emotive Interjection in a sentence:

I’m so happy for you!

I’m so sorry about that.

Cognitive interjection:

Cognitive interjections are the words or phrases used to express a thought. For example, ‘hmm’, ‘Hmm, I don’t know about that, ‘I see’, etc. Cognitive interjections usually need a response from the person you are talking to.

Cognitive Interjection in a sentence:

Hmm, I don’t know about that.

I see. What do you think?

Auxiliary verb- It creates the number and tense of a finite verb/ providing additional help or assistance. The features of an Auxiliary verb is to help create a tense and to indicate how many entities are in the subject if the sentence. ( For example Modal Auxiliary Verb is will, would shall, should, can, could, may, might, must, dare, need, used to and ought to. For Primary Auxiliary Verb is ‘To Be and ‘To Have). Finite verb- It. The features of a Finite Verb is to create a simple present/ simple past tense
eats (SIMPLE PRESENT) ate (SIMPLE PAST). Non-Finite verb- It help form a continuous tense. The features of a Non-Finite Verb is all words that end with -ing . ( Non- Finite Verb= Present Participle, Past Participle and Infinitive) Present Participle- Present Continuous Tense. Past Participle- Past Perfect Tense. Infinitive- Simple Future Tense.

Punctuation Review- Tells the reader when to stop and help the reader understand what the writers means. Effect of Punctuation- Writers can use punctuation to add emotion or create mood. Effect of Parentheses (“)- Add Information that is not necessary to the meaning of the sentences. Effect of Quotation Marks “”- Shows when a person is speaking. Effect of Dash(-)- Adds emphasis, stronger than a comma and does not separate like parentheses. Effects of Exclamation Mark (!)- Adds emotions, used with an interjection and shows that strong emotions is intended.

1st Person Narrative- first-person narrative is a mode of storytelling in which a storyteller recounts events from that storyteller's own personal point of view, using first-person grammar such as "I", "me", "my", and "myself" Effect of 1st Person Narrative-gives the reader a front row seat to the story. 2nd Person Narrative- a little-used technique of narrative in which the action is driven by a character ascribed to the reader, one known as you. Effect of 2nd Person Narrative- assumes that the reader is involved, present, and paying careful attention to the story. 3rd Person Narrative- .the author is narrating a story about the characters, referring to them by name, or using the third-person pronouns “he,” “she,” and “they.” Effect of 3rd Person Narrative-show both the characters' thoughts along with what is actually happening, allowing the reader to clearly see the difference between opinion and fact, and thereby including the bigger picture within the story.

1. Abundant (adjective)- Existing or occurring in large amount. When using it- Use abundant to describe that there was no shortage of solutions, products or people. Sentence- The common sparrow is the most abundant birds in Namibia. 2. Alleviate ( verb )- To make something bad, such as pain or problems, less severe. When using it- To relieve or subdue are both synonyms for alleviate. Setence- The drug did nothing to alleviate her pain. . 3. Assiduously ( Adverb )- In a way that involves great care and attention to detail. When using it- This word is best used in a situation where a person display near perfectionism in his/her execution of a task. Sentence- I assiduously avoid buying products in plastic packaging. 4. Conscientious ( adjective )- Putting a lot of effort into your work. When using it- Save this word for the learner in your class who are always on task and working diligently. Sentence- He is a conscientious student. 5. Ecstatic ( adjectives )- Extremely happy. When using it- You can use it to describe a friend whose emotions tend to work in the superlative. Sentence- The new president was greeted by an ecstatic crowd. 6. Exacerbate ( verb )- To make something that is already bad, even worse. When using it- Remember the figure of speech “ Adding insult to injury” this verb describes exactly that. Sentence- This attack will exacerbate the already tense relations between the two communities. 7. Abscond ( verb )- Leave hurried and secretly, typically to escape from custody or avoid arrest. When using it- Use it when you talk about a theif that stole something. Sentence- The barmen absconded with a week’s takings. 8. Loquacious ( adjective )- Someone who talks a lot, excessive talk. When using it- Save this for people who are always talking, finding it a challenge to keep their mouth shut! Sentence- While Jared was shy, his brother was outgoing and loquacious. 9. Prerequisite ( noun )- Something that must exist or happen before something else can exist or happen. When using it- Prerequisite is typically used in a formal setting to describe what is needed or required in order to carry out a further function. Sentence- Passing a written test is a prerequisite for talking the advanced course. 10.Sincere ( adjective )- A person, feeling or behavior that is not pretending or lying, honest. When using it- When you want to describe a true and honest person, attitude or situation use sincere. Sentence- He was a sincere in his wish to help us. 1. Clasp- (verb) /klɑːsp/ to hold tightly
Use it in a sentence- She clasped her son in her arms.
2. Hermitage- noun /ˈhɜː.mɪ.tɪdʒ/
a remote place, usually used to refer to a place where a religious person lives alone. Use it in a sentence- The prophet’s hermitage is up that mountain.
3. Precaution- noun /prɪˈkɔː.ʃən/
an action that is done to prevent something unpleasant or dangerous from happening. Use it in a sentence- When driving, she always wears her seatbelt as a precaution.
4. Evacuation- noun /ɪˌvæk.juˈeɪ.ʃən/
the act of moving people from a dangerous place to somewhere safe.
Use it in a sentence- The first evacuations came ten days after the disaster.
5. Downy- adjective /ˈdaʊ.ni/
covered in fine, soft hair.
Use it in a sentence- She rested her downy head on the silky pillow.
6. Prediction- noun /prɪˈdɪk.ʃən/
an idea of what might happen in the future.
Use it in a sentence- No-one believed her prediction that Argentina would win the World Cup.
7. Frail- noun /freɪl/
weak or unhealthy, or easily damaged, broken, or harmed
Use it in a sentence- I saw him last week and thought how old and frail he looked.
8. Desolate- adjective /ˌʌn.ɪnˈhæb.ɪ.tɪd/
Empty, uninhabited
Use it in a sentence- They found themselves on a desolate island
9. Hoard- verb /hɔːd/
To collect valuable things that are often kept hidden.
Use it in a sentence- There would be enough food if people were not hoarding.
10. Stereotype- noun /ˈster.i.ə.taɪp/
A set idea that people have about what someone or something is like, especially a wrong idea.
Use it in a sentence- The characters in the book are just stereotypes. 1. ASSIMILATE
• 1. to fully understand an idea
• "Marietriedtoassimilate the week's events."
• 2. to become, or allow somebody to become part of a country/ community rather than remain a separate group.
• “Immigrantshave successfully assimilated into the community.”. 2. ABHOR
regard with disgust and hatred.
“They abhor unfairness in every form.". 3. AUDACIOUS
1.showing a willingness to take surprisingly heroic risks.
“Russia ventured into a series of audacious takeovers.“
2. showing a total lack of respect.
“He made an audacious remark.". 4. FEASIBLE
• possible to do easily or conveniently.
• “It is not feasible to put most finds from excavations on public display."
• 2. likely; probable.
• “That was the most feasible explanation"

5. ENDEAVOUR
• 1. try hard to do or achieve something. (verb)
• “He endeavours to help the Third World.“
• 2. an attempt to achieve a goal. (noun)
• “Pleasemakeeveryendeavour to arrive on time.”

6. REBUKE
• 1. express sharp disapproval or criticism of (someone) because of their behaviour or actions. (VERB)
• "she
had rebuked him for drinkin g too much“
• 2. an expression of sharp disapproval or criticism. (NOUN)
• "he hadn't meant it as a rebuke, but Neil flinched"

7. RESILIENT
• (of a person or animal) able to withstand or recover quickly from difficult conditions.
• ‘babies are generally far more resilient than new parents realise’
• (of a substance or object) able to recoil or spring back into shape after bending, stretching, or being compressed.
• ‘‘Due to my foot problem, I always have to wear shoes with resilient cushioning.’

8. PENSIVE (ADJECTIVE)
Engaged in, involving, or reflecting deep or serious thought.
‘After her parents had a serious talk with Sarah, she sat on her bed in a pensive mood’

9. ATROCITY (NOUN)
An extremely wicked or cruel act, typically one involving physical violence or injury.
‘Mass murders, rapes, and other atrocities were carried out to instill terror and gain control of the region. ’

10. IMPERCEPTIBLE
So slight, gradual, or subtle as not to be perceived. (adjective)
‘his head moved in an almost imperceptible nod’ 1. Psyche ( noun )- Your mind and deepest feeling and attitude. Sentence- “It probably shows up a deeply immature part of my psyche,” he confesses. 2. Obese ( adjective )- Very fat. Sentence- The obese man did nit fit into my small Mini Cooper. 3. Distress ( adjective )- Extremely worry/ concerns. Sentence- She showed obvious signs of distress. 4. Feebleness ( noun )- State of being physically weak. Sentence- Despite her age and feebleness, Grandma displayed remarkable energy. 5. Brief ( verb )- Containing few words. Sentence- The Captain briefed his crew on the new procedures. 6. Myth ( noun )- A widely held but false belief or idea/ imaginary. Sentence- People held this myth for a while before the authorities held awareness programs. 7. Menance ( noun )- A person or thing that is likely to cause harm/ threat or danger. Sentence- Dennis the menance is always causing trouble. 8. Crucial ( adjectives)- Very important. Sentence- The emergency surgery is crucial if he is to survive. 9. Devour ( verb )- To eat hungrily or quickly. Sentence- He devoured everything on his plate. 10. Haste ( noun )- To be fast. Sentence- He was in haste to get to his office.

1. To stand tall: to act in a proud and confident way
Example: As she walked up to the podium to speak, she reminded herself to stand tall.
2. Rich laughter : deep musical laugh Her rich laughter was contagious.
3. Digging up the past: to discover information about someone, esp. damaging
information: The firm hired a private detective to dig up information on the
former supervisor.
4. Strike gold you find, do, or produce something that brings you a lot of money or
success. The company has struck gold with its new holiday development.
5. A force for good to become someone who fights for good things, like morals, law
and oppose evil
6. Working around the clock all day and all night without stopping: They're working
around the clock to get it done.
7. Take for granted you do not realize or show that you are grateful for how much
you get from them:.
8. Crocodile tears their tears and sadness are not genuine or sincere. The sight of
George shedding crocodile tears made me sick.
9. Let the cat out of the bag to allow a secret to be known, usually without intending
to: I was trying to keep the party a secret, but Mel went and let the cat out of the
10. To let the grass grow under our feet to wait before doing something or to do
something slowly. used in negative statements. He has never been one to let the grass grow under his feet. 1. To split hairs: To argue about unimportant things.
My sister and I always split hairs about which show we can both watch .
2. To make a long story short: To come to the point.
Sorry, I am late. To make a long story short, I was caught up in traffic.
3. To get a lion’s share: To get more than everyone else.
I always get a lion’s share every time we order pizza because my sister is dieting.
4. Bite off more than you can chew: Take on a task that is too big for you.
You bit more than you can chew, and you will never finish the presentation on time.
5. The sands are running out: There isn’t much time left.
We must work harder because the sands are running out and soon we will write examinations.
6. To be a cry wolf: To call for help when you don’t need it. My baby sister is constantly a cry wolf.
7. To commit to memory: To learn by heart.
I committed to memory all the phonic sounds before I was even five.
8. To beat around the bush: To say something without getting to the point.
My friend kept beating about the bush when I asked him about his test score.
9. To miss the boat: To miss an opportunity to do something.
I think I have missed the boat, the Curro-Create applications are closed.
10. To sail close to the wind: To do something that might get you in trouble. By skipping classes on Tuesday, you sailed close to the wind. 1. A stitch in time saves nine
- It is better to deal with a problem in its early stages, in order to prevent it getting worse.
It seems as if something is wrong with my car, it’s better to get it checked as a stitch in time saves nine. 2. SCAPEGOAT
-To be used as an excuse for someone’s mistake.
I don’t deserve to be made the scapegoat for a couple of bad results. 3. EAGER BEAVER
-To do/ perform more than is expected.
When she first started working, she was a real eager beaver. 4. BEE IN ONE’S BONNET
-to be obsessed with a certain idea, to be preoccupied with something.
She never stops talking about healthy eating - she's got a real bee in her bonnet about it. 5. COCK-AND- BULL STORY
- An unbelievable tale that is intended to deceive; a tall tale.
“When he told that cock and bull story, all the people were stupefied; the details were just like fairies and ghosts that have never existed. Yet, people are speechless.” 6. THE DARK HORSE
-the person that you don’t always expect to see coming out on top.
I am sorry that he is not here, but he is a bit of a dark horse. 7. CHICKENS COME HOME TO ROOST
-that the bad things that someone has done in the past have come back to bite or haunt the individual.
After all the years of overspending, the chickens have come home to roost. 8. TAKE THE BULL BY THE HORNS
- to deal with a difficult situation in a very direct or confident way.
She decided to take the bull by the horns and try to solve the problem without any further delay. 9. CRUNCH TIME
-A period when pressure to succeed is great, often toward the end of an undertaking.
The team relies on you to deliver at crunch time. 10. To throw dust in one’s eyes.
-To try to deceive someone.
She threw dust in the eyes of the jeweller by pretending to be a well-to- do lady, and then stole the jewellery. 1. A blessing in disguise
- A good thing that seemed bad at first.
He misplaced his ticket and missed the match, but it was a blessing in disguise as there was a stampede at the stadium. 2. Better late than never.
It is better to show up late than not to arrive at all.
-I know there are challenges but it’s better late than never. 3. Bite the bullet
-To get something over with because it is inevitable.
I was very tired, but I just had to bite the bullet and complete the task. 4. Cutting corners
- Doing something poorly in order to save tie or money.
This construction company is well known for cutting corners. 5. Get out of hand.
- Get out of control.
The principal was called in when the situation began to get out of hands. 6. Give someone the benefit of doubt.
-To believe something good about someone, rather than something bad, when you have the possibility of doing either.
I didn't know whether his story was true or not, but I decided to give him the benefit of the doubt. 7. Go back to the drawing board.
-Start over.
After failing to get the project going, we had to go back to the drawing board and restrategise. 8. Hang in there.
- Don’t give up.
Her friends advised her to hang in there even if the situation was tough. 9. Hit the sack.
-Go to sleep.
We were enjoying the movie, but it was time to hit the sack. 10. Let someone off the hook.
-Not hold someone responsible for something.
The criminal was let off the hook for lack of evidence.