Criminology: Social Process Theories
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1
What is the central focus of social process theories in criminology?
How interactions, learning experiences, social relationships, and institutional experiences influence the development of criminal behavior.
2
What is the fundamental assumption of differential association theory?
Criminal behavior is learned through social interaction rather than being an innate or automatically inherited characteristic.
3
Who formulated differential association theory?
Edwin H. Sutherland.
4
In what year did Sutherland first present differential association theory in Principles of Criminology?
1939; the influential nine-proposition formulation appeared in the 1947 edition.
5
What is Sutherland's first proposition of differential association?
Criminal behavior is learned.
6
What is Sutherland's second proposition of differential association?
Criminal behavior is learned through interaction with other persons in a process of communication.
7
What is Sutherland's third proposition of differential association?
The principal part of learning criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.
8
What is Sutherland's fourth proposition of differential association?
Learning criminal behavior includes techniques of committing crime and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.
9
What is Sutherland's fifth proposition of differential association?
The direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.
10
What is Sutherland's sixth proposition of differential association?
A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violating the law over definitions unfavorable to violation.
11
What is Sutherland's seventh proposition of differential association?
Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.
12
What is Sutherland's eighth proposition of differential association?
Learning criminal behavior through association involves the same learning mechanisms involved in other forms of learning.
13
What is Sutherland's ninth proposition of differential association?
Although criminal behavior expresses general needs and values, it cannot be explained by those needs and values alone because noncriminal behavior expresses them too.
14
What does frequency mean in differential association theory?
How often an individual interacts with people communicating particular definitions or behaviors.
15
What does duration mean in differential association theory?
How long an association or exposure to particular social influences continues.
16
What does priority mean in differential association theory?
The timing of associations in a person's life, particularly their occurrence during earlier developmental periods.
17
What does intensity mean in differential association theory?
The importance, prestige, emotional closeness, or influence attached to a particular association.
18
Which of Sutherland's propositions specifically explains why favorable definitions of law violation are important?
The sixth proposition, which emphasizes an excess of definitions favorable to violating the law.
19
What are definitions favorable to law violation?
Beliefs, attitudes, or justifications that portray illegal conduct as acceptable, desirable, or permissible in particular circumstances.
20
What are definitions unfavorable to law violation?
Beliefs and attitudes discouraging illegal conduct by emphasizing moral objections, social responsibilities, or legal consequences.
21
What is a neutralizing definition in social learning theory?
A belief that excuses or justifies prohibited conduct under certain conditions without necessarily approving all criminal behavior.
22
What is a positive definition of criminal behavior?
A belief that directly approves, encourages, or values a particular illegal act.
23
Why does differential association theory not require every member of a peer group to commit crimes?
Individuals can receive different combinations of influences, interpretations, and learning experiences within the same group.
24
What is a major limitation of differential association theory?
It can be difficult to measure learned definitions precisely and distinguish peer influence from the tendency to select similar peers.
25
What is social selection in studies of delinquent peers?
The process through which individuals choose friends or groups whose attitudes and behavior already resemble their own.
26
What is social influence in studies of delinquent peers?
The process through which interactions with peers contribute to changes in an individual's attitudes or behavior.
27
Why must researchers distinguish peer selection from peer influence?
An association between delinquent friends and offending does not by itself establish that those friends caused the offending.
28
Who developed the influential differential reinforcement formulation of criminal behavior with Robert Burgess?
Ronald L. Akers.
29
What is Burgess and Akers' differential association-reinforcement theory?
A reformulation of criminal learning that incorporates operant conditioning and reinforcement into differential association.
30
What is Akers' social learning theory of crime?
A theory explaining criminal and conforming behavior through differential association, definitions, differential reinforcement, and imitation.
31
What are the four principal concepts in Akers' social learning theory?
Differential association, definitions, differential reinforcement, and imitation.
32
What is differential reinforcement in Akers' theory?
The balance of actual or anticipated rewards and punishments associated with a particular behavior.
33
What is direct reinforcement in criminal learning?
A consequence personally experienced that increases the likelihood of repeating a behavior.
34
What is anticipated reinforcement?
An expected reward or favorable consequence that influences a person's decision before engaging in behavior.
35
What is social reinforcement?
Approval, recognition, status, attention, or other interpersonal consequences that strengthen behavior.
36
What is nonsocial reinforcement?
A reinforcing consequence not dependent on another person's direct approval, such as an immediate material or sensory benefit.
37
What is imitation in Akers' social learning theory?
Engaging in behavior after observing or modeling similar behavior performed by others.
38
How does Akers' theory extend Sutherland's differential association theory?
It adds explicit mechanisms of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation to explain how learned behavior is acquired and maintained.
39
What is the difference between differential association and differential reinforcement?
Differential association concerns exposure to social influences; differential reinforcement concerns the rewards and punishments associated with behavior.
40
Why is reinforcement not necessarily the same as financial gain?
Reinforcement may involve social approval, emotional relief, status, excitement, or other consequences that increase behavior.
41
Scenario: A student learns how to falsify records from a trusted older friend. Which differential association proposition is most directly illustrated?
The fourth proposition, concerning the learning of criminal techniques and associated motives and attitudes.
42
Scenario: A teenager repeatedly hears close friends describe shoplifting as harmless. Which learning process is illustrated?
Exposure to definitions favorable to violating the law through differential association.
43
Scenario: A person begins stealing after observing a respected peer receive praise for theft. Which two social learning mechanisms are illustrated?
Imitation and observed or anticipated social reinforcement.
44
Scenario: A youth commits vandalism repeatedly because friends applaud the behavior. Which Akers concept most directly explains its persistence?
Differential reinforcement through peer approval.
45
Scenario: An individual stops participating in illegal gambling after repeated financial losses and social disapproval. Which learning process may explain the change?
A change in the balance of reinforcement and punishment associated with the behavior.
46
Scenario: A student with delinquent friends never participates in their offenses because family and school relationships strongly discourage illegal behavior. What does this demonstrate?
Exposure to delinquent peers does not determine behavior; competing definitions, associations, and consequences can influence choices.
47
Scenario: Two adolescents have the same number of delinquent friends, but one has a highly influential older sibling who encourages offending. Which differential association dimension is especially relevant?
Intensity, because the importance and influence of an association can differ even when contact frequency is similar.
48
Scenario: A researcher observes that delinquent youths often associate with one another but cannot determine which behavior appeared first. What causal problem exists?
The researcher cannot distinguish peer selection from peer influence using the association alone.
49
Scenario: An employee learns fraudulent accounting procedures at work and continues because supervisors reward the results. Which theory provides the most comprehensive explanation?
Akers' social learning theory, combining learned techniques, favorable definitions, differential association, and reinforcement.
50
What is the key distinction between social learning theories and biological determinism?
Social learning theories emphasize acquired behavior and changing social consequences rather than treating criminal conduct as biologically inevitable.
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