Developmental Psychology
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1
What did Harry Harlow study?
Attachment in infant rhesus monkeys.
2
What did Harlow’s monkey studies show about attachment?
Contact comfort was more important than feeding alone.
3
What is attachment?
An emotional bond between an individual and a caregiver.
4
What is the zone of proximal development?
The range of tasks a learner can perform with help but not yet independently.
5
Who developed the concept of the zone of proximal development?
Lev Vygotsky.
6
What is scaffolding?
Temporary support that is gradually removed as a learner gains skill.
7
What is authoritative parenting?
Parenting with high responsiveness and clear, consistent expectations.
8
What is authoritarian parenting?
Parenting with strict demands and low responsiveness.
9
What is permissive parenting?
Parenting with high responsiveness but few demands or limits.
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What is uninvolved parenting?
Parenting with low responsiveness and few demands.
11
Which parenting style combines warmth with firm limits?
Authoritative parenting.
12
What is conservation in cognitive development?
Understanding that quantity stays the same despite changes in appearance.
13
What is childhood egocentrism?
Difficulty understanding another person’s perspective.
14
What is a schema?
A mental framework used to organize and interpret information.
15
What is assimilation?
Interpreting new information using an existing schema.
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What is accommodation?
Changing a schema or creating a new one to fit new information.
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A child calls a zebra a horse; which process is this?
Assimilation.
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A child creates a new category for zebras; which process is this?
Accommodation.
19
What is object permanence?
Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight.
20
What is stranger anxiety?
Distress around unfamiliar people.
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When does stranger anxiety commonly emerge?
During the second half of the first year.
22
What is theory of mind?
Understanding that others have their own thoughts, beliefs, and feelings.
23
What does a false-belief task assess?
Understanding that someone can hold a belief that differs from reality.
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When do children typically begin passing standard false-belief tasks?
Around ages 4–5.
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What is a critical period?
A limited developmental window when particular experiences are necessary for typical development.
26
What is temperament?
A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
27
What is self-concept?
A person’s beliefs and perceptions about themselves.
28
What is adolescence?
The transition between childhood and adulthood beginning with puberty.
29
What is identity?
A person’s sense of who they are, including their values, roles, and goals.
30
What is social identity?
The part of self-concept based on group memberships.
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What is emerging adulthood?
A period of exploration between adolescence and established adulthood.
32
What age range is commonly associated with emerging adulthood?
Approximately ages 18–25, sometimes extending through the twenties.
33
Does emerging adulthood occur universally?
No; it depends partly on cultural and economic conditions.
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What is continuous development?
Gradual, cumulative change over time.
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What is stage-based development?
Development through distinct, qualitatively different periods.
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What does stability mean in development?
The persistence of traits over time.
37
What does change mean in development?
The modification of traits or abilities over time.
38
What did Piaget emphasize in cognitive development?
Children actively construct knowledge through interaction with their environment.
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What did Vygotsky emphasize in cognitive development?
Social interaction, language, and cultural tools.
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How do Piaget and Vygotsky differ on developmental stages?
Piaget proposed universal cognitive stages; Vygotsky did not propose a comparable fixed stage sequence.
41
What is private speech in Vygotsky’s theory?
Self-directed speech that helps children guide their thinking and behavior.
42
What is biological sex?
A classification based on traits such as chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive anatomy.
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What is gender?
Social and psychological dimensions of identity, expression, and roles.
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What is gender identity?
A person’s internal sense of their gender.
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What are gender roles?
Cultural expectations about behavior associated with gender.
46
What are gender stereotypes?
Generalized beliefs about people based on gender.
47
Do average sex differences describe every individual?
No; individuals vary widely and groups overlap.
48
Who typically begins puberty earlier on average: females or males?
Females.
49
Which sex has greater average muscle mass after puberty?
Males.
50
What is puberty?
The biological process of sexual maturation.
51
What are primary sex characteristics?
Reproductive organs and structures directly involved in reproduction.
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What are secondary sex characteristics?
Puberty-related traits not directly involved in reproduction.
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What are examples of secondary sex characteristics?
Breast development, facial hair, and voice changes.
54
What is menarche?
The first menstrual period.
55
What is spermarche?
The first ejaculation.
56
What physical change commonly occurs during adolescence?
A rapid growth spurt.
57
When do many physical abilities reach their peak?
In early adulthood.
58
How does fluid intelligence generally change in later adulthood?
It tends to decline with age.
59
What is fluid intelligence?
The ability to solve unfamiliar problems and reason quickly.
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How does crystallized intelligence generally change through much of adulthood?
It often remains stable or increases with experience.
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What is crystallized intelligence?
Accumulated knowledge and skills.
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What is menopause?
The permanent end of menstruation marking the end of reproductive capacity.
63
What commonly happens to bone density in later adulthood?
It tends to decrease.
64
What commonly happens to reaction time in later adulthood?
It tends to become slower.
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What commonly happens to sensory abilities in later adulthood?
Vision and hearing often decline.
66
What are Piaget’s four stages in order?
Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational.
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When does Piaget’s sensorimotor stage occur?
Approximately birth to age 2.
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What characterizes the sensorimotor stage?
Learning through sensory experiences and physical actions.
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During which Piaget stage does object permanence develop?
The sensorimotor stage.
70
When does Piaget’s preoperational stage occur?
Approximately ages 2–7.
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What characterizes the preoperational stage?
Symbolic thinking without consistent logical operations.
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What is symbolic thinking?
Using words, images, or objects to represent something else.
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During which Piaget stage is egocentrism especially prominent?
The preoperational stage.
74
What is centration?
Focusing on one feature of a situation while ignoring others.
75
Why might a preoperational child fail a conservation task?
The child focuses on appearance rather than mentally reversing the change.
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When does Piaget’s concrete operational stage occur?
Approximately ages 7–11.
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What characterizes the concrete operational stage?
Logical reasoning about concrete objects and events.
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During which Piaget stage is conservation typically mastered?
The concrete operational stage.
79
What is reversibility in cognitive development?
Understanding that an action can be mentally undone.
80
When does Piaget’s formal operational stage begin?
Approximately age 12.
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What characterizes the formal operational stage?
Abstract and hypothetical reasoning.
82
What is hypothetical-deductive reasoning?
Developing hypotheses and systematically testing their predictions.
83
Are Piaget’s stage ages exact deadlines?
No; developmental timing varies.
84
What does Erikson’s theory describe?
Eight psychosocial conflicts across the lifespan.
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What is Erikson’s first psychosocial conflict?
Trust versus mistrust.
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When does trust versus mistrust occur?
During infancy.
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What supports trust in Erikson’s infancy stage?
Consistent, responsive caregiving.
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What is Erikson’s second psychosocial conflict?
Autonomy versus shame and doubt.
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When does autonomy versus shame and doubt occur?
During toddlerhood, approximately ages 1–3.
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What is the central task of autonomy versus shame and doubt?
Developing independence and self-control.
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What is Erikson’s third psychosocial conflict?
Initiative versus guilt.
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When does initiative versus guilt occur?
During the preschool years, approximately ages 3–6.
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What is the central task of initiative versus guilt?
Initiating activities and pursuing goals.
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What is Erikson’s fourth psychosocial conflict?
Industry versus inferiority.
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When does industry versus inferiority occur?
During the elementary school years.
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What is the central task of industry versus inferiority?
Developing competence through learning and achievement.
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What is Erikson’s fifth psychosocial conflict?
Identity versus role confusion.
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When does identity versus role confusion occur?
During adolescence.
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What is the central task of identity versus role confusion?
Developing a coherent sense of self.
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What is Erikson’s sixth psychosocial conflict?
Intimacy versus isolation.
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When does intimacy versus isolation occur?
During young adulthood.
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What is the central task of intimacy versus isolation?
Forming close, committed relationships.
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What is Erikson’s seventh psychosocial conflict?
Generativity versus stagnation.
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When does generativity versus stagnation occur?
During middle adulthood.
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What is generativity?
Contributing to future generations and the wider community.
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What is Erikson’s eighth psychosocial conflict?
Integrity versus despair.
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When does integrity versus despair occur?
During late adulthood.
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What is the central task of integrity versus despair?
Reflecting on life with acceptance rather than regret.
109
What does Kohlberg’s theory describe?
The development of moral reasoning.
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What are Kohlberg’s three levels of moral reasoning?
Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.
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What defines preconventional moral reasoning?
Judging actions by personal consequences.
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What is Kohlberg’s first moral stage?
Obedience and punishment orientation.
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What motivates moral decisions in Kohlberg’s first stage?
Avoiding punishment.
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What is Kohlberg’s second moral stage?
Individualism and exchange.
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What motivates moral decisions in Kohlberg’s second stage?
Personal benefit and reciprocal exchange.
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What defines conventional moral reasoning?
Judging actions by social approval and established rules.
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What is Kohlberg’s third moral stage?
Interpersonal conformity.
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What motivates moral decisions in Kohlberg’s third stage?
Gaining approval and being seen as a good person.
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What is Kohlberg’s fourth moral stage?
Law-and-order orientation.
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What motivates moral decisions in Kohlberg’s fourth stage?
Maintaining laws, duties, and social order.
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What defines postconventional moral reasoning?
Judging actions by rights and ethical principles beyond existing rules.
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What is Kohlberg’s fifth moral stage?
Social-contract orientation.
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How are laws viewed in Kohlberg’s fifth stage?
As agreements that can be changed to protect rights and welfare.
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What is Kohlberg’s sixth moral stage?
Universal ethical principles.
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What guides moral decisions in Kohlberg’s sixth stage?
Self-chosen principles of justice and human dignity.
126
Does Kohlberg’s theory assess moral reasoning or actual behavior?
Moral reasoning.
127
Does everyone reach Kohlberg’s postconventional level?
No.
128
What is one criticism of Kohlberg’s theory?
It may privilege justice-focused reasoning over care-focused reasoning.
129
How does limited contraceptive access influence teenage pregnancy risk?
It can increase the likelihood of unintended pregnancy.
130
How does inconsistent contraceptive use influence teenage pregnancy risk?
It increases the likelihood of unintended pregnancy.
131
How can comprehensive sex education influence teenage pregnancy risk?
It can reduce risk by improving knowledge and protective behavior.
132
How can peer or partner pressure influence teenage pregnancy risk?
It can encourage sexual activity or discourage contraception.
133
How can alcohol or drug use influence teenage pregnancy risk?
It can impair judgment and interfere with contraceptive use.
134
How can poverty influence teenage pregnancy risk?
It can limit access to education, healthcare, and contraception.
135
How can coercion influence teenage pregnancy risk?
It can prevent freely chosen sexual activity or contraceptive use.
136
What chromosome patterns are most commonly associated with female and male development?
XX with female development and XY with male development.
137
Do all people have XX or XY sex chromosomes?
No; other chromosome patterns occur.
138
What does the SRY gene usually initiate?
Testis development.
139
What is the main source of testosterone during typical male fetal development?
The developing testes.
140
What does anti-Müllerian hormone do during typical male fetal development?
Promotes regression of the Müllerian ducts.
141
What does fetal testosterone help develop?
Male internal reproductive structures.
142
What does dihydrotestosterone help develop?
Male external genitalia.
143
What activates the reproductive hormone system at puberty?
Increased pulsatile release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone.
144
What does gonadotropin-releasing hormone stimulate the pituitary to release?
Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone.
145
What do luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone regulate?
Gonadal hormone production and reproductive function.
146
Which hormones support many typical female pubertal changes?
Estrogens.
147
Which hormone supports many typical male pubertal changes?
Testosterone.
148
Do all individuals follow identical patterns of sexual development?
No; biological variation occurs.
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