Anatomy Basics: Planes and Landmarks

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Topographic Anatomy

The superficial landmarks of the body that serve as guides to the structures that lie beneath them.

Anatomic position

The position of reference in which the patient stands facing you, arms at the side, with the palms of the hands forward.

coronal plane (frontal plane)

Vertical plane dividing the body or structure into anterior and posterior portions.

transverse plane (axial plane)

horizontal (cross-sectional) plane dividing the body into superior and inferior portions.

sagittal plane (lateral plane)

An imaginary line where the body is cut into left and right parts.
( but not necessarily equal portions)

midsagittal plane (midline)

An imaginary vertical line drawn from the middle of the forehead through the nose and the umbilicus (navel) to the floor.

skeletal muscle

Muscle that is attached to bones and usually crosses at least one joint; striated, or voluntary, muscle.

The body contain 206

Ligaments

A bands of fibrous tissue that form joints by connecting one bone to another bone or by joining a bone to cartilage.

connects bone to bone

Tendons

The fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone.

Connects bone to bone

Cartilage

The smooth connective tissue that forms the support structure of the skeletal system and provides cushioning between bone;

also forms the nasal septum and portion of the outer ear.

axial skeleton

The part of the skeleton comprising the skull, spinal column, and rib cage.

Thoracic cage

The chest or rib cage.

appendicular skeleton

The portion of the skeletal system that comprises the arms, legs, pelvis, and shoulder girdle.

Thorax (Thoracic cavity)

The chest cavity that contains the heart, lungs, esophagus, and great vessels.
Also part of the torso
- form 12 vertebrae

cranium (skull)

Is one of the two skull group bone and is composed of a number of thick bones.
- That fuse together to form above the eyes, ears that hold and protects the brain.
Contains: frontal bone, parietal bone, occipital bone, temporal bone, sphenoid bone, sutures, fontanelles, facial bones.

foramen magnum

A large opening at the base of the skull through which the brain connects to the spinal cord.

1. Occiput or occipital bone
2. Temporal bones

1. located on the posterior portion of the head, protects the cerebellum region of the brain. -The most posterior portion of the cranium.

2. Located lateral on each side of the cranium superior to the ears
- temples (on both sides of the head)

3. Parietal bone 4.Frontal bone

3. Located between the temporal and occipital regions of the cranium.
- on both side of the head above the ears

4. The portion of the cranium that forms the forehead.

fontanelles

Located anterior and posterior, where the sutures has not fully closed yet
-found in pediatric pt
- close by the age 18 months

facial bones

2 nasal
2 maxillary(helps to make up the skull)
2 zygomatic(cheeks)
1 mandible (jaw, only movable bone of skull)
2 palatine(portion of the nasal cavity and palate)
1 vomer(separating the left and right nasal cavities)
2 lacrimal(located within the orbit above the lateral end of the eye)
2 inferior nasal conchae(separates the middle and lower nasal)
7 orbit(eye socket)

Maxillae (maxillary bones)

The upper jawbone that assist in the formation of the orbit, nasal cavity, and the palate and hold the upper teeth.

Zygomatic bone

The quadrangular bone of the cheek, articulating (form a joint.) with the frontal bone, the maxillae, the zygomatic processes of the temporal bone, and great wings of the sphenoid bone.

Sphenoid bone (greater wing)

Is a compound bone that forms the base of the cranium. Essential functions anterior to the temporal bone, lateral sides of the skull, and forming a part of the eye orbits.
- four main parts:
Body (median portion)
Two greater wings (lateral portion)
Two lesser wings (anterior portion)
Pterygoid processes (directed downwards)(each of a pair of projections)

1. Orbit (orbital cavity)
2. Mandible

1.The eye socket, made up of the maxilla and the zygoma.

2. The bone of the lower jaw.

1. The body composed of how many bones ? 2. Vertebrae

1. 206 bones

2. Is the 33 bones that make up the spinal column.
Cervical 7, Thoracic spine 12, Lumbar spine 5, Sacrum 5, and Coccyx 4.

cervical spine

The portion of the spinal column consisting of the first seven vertebrae that lie in the neck.
1. Vertebrae is called: Atlas
2. Vertebrae is called: Axis

thoracic spine

The 12 vertebrae that lie between the cervical vertebrae and the lumbar vertebrae. One pair of ribs is attached to each of the thoracic vertebrae.

lumbar spine

The lower part of the back, formed by the lowest five nonfused vertebrae; also called the dorsal spine.

Sacrum or sacral

5 vertebrae that fused together to form one bone and two iliac (pelvic bones)
- That make up the pelvic ring.
- The strong ligaments at the sacroiliac joints to form the pelvis.

Coccyx

The last 3 or 4 vertebrae of the spine.
- Most susceptible to trauma
also know as: the tail bone

Sternum

Is the breastbone of the chest and superior border form for easily palpable stern notch.
- Its location is where the trachea enters the chest.
- Has 3 components: Manubrium, the body, and xiphoid process.

1. manubrium. 2. Xiphoid process

1. The upper bony structure of the (superior) sternum.

2. The narrow, cartilaginous lower tip of the (inferior) sternum.

1. Joint (articulation)

1. The place where two bones come into contact.
Consists:
1. Bone ends
2. Fibrous joint capsule
3. Synovial membrane
4. Ligaments

1. Joint capsule 2. Symphysis

1. A fibrous tissue/sac that encloses bone ends and other joint surfaces

2. A type of joint that has grown together to form a very stable connection.

sacroiliac joint

The connection point between the pelvis and the vertebral column.
Consists:
1. Thick ligaments
2. Little motion

Articulate cartilage

A pearly white substance that allows moving end joints to glide easily and covered with thin layer of cartilage.
Also known as: Articular surfaces (contact surfaces on the ends)

synovial membrane

Is the inner lining of a joint that secretes synovial fluid into the joint space.

Synovial fluid

The small amount of liquid within an end joint used as lubrication made by synovial membrane.

1. Ball and socket joint
2. Hinge joint

1. A joint that allows internal and external rotation, as well as bending.

2. A joint that can be bend (flexion) and straighten (extension) but cannot rotate; they restrict motion to one plane. Ex fingers joint, elbow and knee.

shoulder girdle

The proximal portion of the upper extremity, made up of the clavicle, the scapula, and the humerus.

1. Clavicle 2. Scapula

1. The collar bone that makes up the should girdle.

2. The shoulder blade that makes up the shoulder girdle.
Which Lies in the muscular tissues and posterior of the thoracic wall

Humerus

The supporting bone of the upper arm is
also makes up the shoulder girdle.

Ulna

The inner bone proximal (next to) forearm, on the side opposite the thumb that help form the elbow joint.

Radius

The bone that lies on the lateral or thumb side of the distal forearm.
Also larger than the ulna

Wrist

Is a modified ball-and-socket joint formed by the radius and ulna that contains 8 bones called carpal bones.

Hand

- It contains 5 metacarpal
- Anterior surface is called palm
- Posterior surface is called dorsal.
- 5 fingers/digits bones are called phalanges
- thumb composed of 2 phalanges
- other four digits each contain 3 phalanges

Pelvis

Is a closed bony ring that consists of the 3 Major bones:.
ilium/iliac crests (the wing section), ischium (the inferior portion), and the pubis (the anterior portion)
Also contains the scrum, acetabulum and pubic symphysis.

Pubic symphysis

A hard, bony, and cartilaginous prominence found at the midline in the lowermost portion of the abdomen where the two halves of the pelvic ring are joined by cartilage at a joint with minimal motion.

Acetabulum

The depression on the lateral pelvis (the pelvic girdle) where its three components bones join, in which the femoral head is connected.

Femur

The thighbone; the longest and one of the strongest bones in the body.

femoral head

The proximal end of the femur, connects with the acetabulum (the pelvic girdle) by a ball-and-socket joint.

Greater trochanter

the projection on the lateral/superior portion of the junction between the femoral head and shaft

lesser trochanter

The projection on the medial/superior portion of the femur.

Skeletal muscle

Is part of the musculoskeletal system that the muscle is attached to the bones of the skeleton/ at least one joint, voluntary control, and muscles mass of the body.

1. Tibia. 2. Fibula

1. The shinbone, larger anterior weight-bearing bone of the lower leg.

2. The lateral and smaller bone of the lower leg

upper extremity (arms and shoulders girdle)

clavicle(collarbone), scapula(shoulder blade), humerus(superior bone of the arm), radius(lateral bone of forearm, redial pulse), ulna(medial bone of forearm,thumb side), carpals(eight tiny bones that make up the wrist), metacarpals(five bones of the hand), phalanges(finger bones)

Lower extremities (legs and pelvic girdle)

Greater trochanter(ball), acetabulum(socket), femur(thighbone), patella(kneecap), tibia(medial bone lower leg), fibula(lateral bone of the lower leg), malleolus(ankle bone medial/lateral side), tarsals/metatarsals(12 bones that make up the foot), calcareous(heel of foot), phalanges( toe bone)

Automaticity

Cells ability to spontaneously generate an electrical impulse.

Excitability

Cells ability to respond to an electrical impulse

skeletal system functions

Is a system that gives
1. The body its shape
2. Protects fragile organs
3. Allows for movement
4. Stores calcium
5. Helps create blood cells

Calcium

Is a mineral your body needs to build and maintain strong bones and to carry out many important functions.
1. That helps build hard resilient bones.
2. Helps heart, muscle and nerves work properly.

Musculoskeletal System

The bones and voluntary muscles of the body that's designed for
1. Form
2. Upright posture
3. Movement
4. Protection of vital internal organs

knee joint

largest and most complex joint in the body
1. Connects upper leg to lower leg
2. Hinge joint (with motion retract to Flexation and extension)
3. Also a specialized bone called the patella.

Smooth muscle

Is part of the musculoskeletal system is a involuntary muscle is found within blood vessels and intestines.

Cardiac muscle

Involuntary muscle tissue found only in the heart.
Also is able to create is own electrical impulses.

Voluntary muscle

Muscle that is under direct voluntary control of the brain and can be contracted or relaxed at will; Also can be called skeletal, or striated, muscle.

Involuntary muscle

Muscle that responds automatically to brain signals but cannot be consciously controlled (such as the heart).

1. Biceps. 2. Triceps

1. The large muscle that cover anterior of the humerus.

2. The muscle of the posterior arm also called three-headed muscle has (one on the scapula, two on the humerus) and one insertion on the ulna.

Respiratory system

All the structures of the body that contribute to the process of breathing, consisting of the upper and lower airways and their component parts.

The Upper Airway

1. Nasopharynx
2. Nose
3. Pharynx (roof of the mouth/soft palate
4. Oropharynx (throat)
5. Mouth (oral cavity)
6. Tongue
7. Jaw (mandible)
8. Epiglottis
9. Pharynx
10. Larynx (voice box) Divided between upper/lower airway
11. Laryngopharynx (base of trachea/esophagus posteriorly.

Larynx

Is a (voice box)
a. Dividing line between the upper and lower airway.
b. Complex arrangement of tiny bones, cartilage, muscles, and vocal cords passageway for air moving from pharynx to trachea

Trachea

Is a large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage, extending from the larynx (voice box) to the bronchial tubes and conveying air to and from the lungs; the windpipe.
a. Located at the bottom of the pharynx.
b. The main truck for air to passing to and from the lungs.
c.Semi-rigid, enclosed air tube made up of rings of cartilage.

Epiglottis

A thin leaf-shaped valve that allows air to pass into the trachea but prevents food and liquid from entering

lower respiratory tract

Voice box (larynx)
Windpipe (trachea)
Lungs.
Airways (bronchi and bronchioles)
Air sacs (alveoli)

upper respiratory tract

Nostrils,
Nasal Cavities
Pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx)
Mouth
Epiglottis(leaf-shape)
Larynx.(voice box)

Esophagus

A collapsible tube that extends from the pharynx to the stomach, muscle contraction propel food and liquid through it to the stomach

Adam's apple

A firm prominence of cartilage that for the upper part of the larynx. It is more prominent in men than in women. Also call the thyroid cartilage.

Cricoid cartilage

A firm ridge of cartilage that forms the lower part of the larynx.

Cricothyroid membrane

A thin sheet of fascia (ligament) that connects the thyroid and cricoid cartilages that make up the larynx.

Mainstem bronchi

The part of the lower airway below the larynx through which air enters to the branches of the left and a right side of the lungs.
RL is larger in diameter and straighter than the left because it supplies the larger lung
-LL is about twice as long

Carina

A point at which the trachea bifurcates (divides) into the left and right mainstem bronchi.

Lungs

Is held in place by the trachea and contains an arteries, veins, and the pulmonary ligaments.
R lung has three lobes upper, middle, lower
L lung has two lobes upper, and lower

Bronchioles

Is the smallest branches of the bronchi

Lobes

Is subdivisions of the lung, with two on the left and three on the right. Within are the bronchi and bronchioles, which end in small 700 million grape-like sacs called alveoli.

Alveoli

Is million small air sacs of the lungs in which the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.

pulmonary capillaries

Is surround the thin tissue membranes of the alveoli; site of gas exchange in blood.
Carry the carbon dioxide from the body to the lungs and the oxygen from the lungs to the body.

pleura

A serous membrane covering the lungs and lining the thorax, completely enclosing a potential space non-as plural space.
That has two layers visceral pleura/parietal pleural

1. Visceral pleura. 2. Parietal pleura

1. The inner layer of pleura lying closer to the lung tissue.

2. The outer layer of pleura lying closer to the ribs and chest wall
Between the two layers is a small amount of fluid that allows the tissues to glide smoothly.

Pleural space

The potential space between the parietal pleura and the visceral pleura described as "potential" . It is because under normal conditions, the space does not exist. Has thin film of fluid.

Diaphragm

A muscular dome-shaped that forms the undersurface of the thorax.
1. Primary muscle of breathing
2. Divides the thorax from the abdomen
3. Its automatic function is breathing.
4. It's characteristics of voluntary(skeletal)/ involuntary( smooth).

During inhalation

the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, moving the ribs up and out, enlarging the chest cavity, decreasing the pressure in the lungs (negative pressure), and moving air in. voluntary(skeletal)

During exhalation

the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, decreasing the chest cavity, increasing the pressure in the lungs, and moving air out. Carbon dioxide is removed from the lungs
involuntary( smooth).

Ventilation

The movement of air between the lungs and the environment.
1. Requires chest rise and fall.
2. artificial ventilation assist bag valve mask (BVM)

Diffusion

Movement of molecules (gas) from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
1. higher concentration- the air
2. Lower concentration- the bloodstream

Respiration

The inhalation and exhalation of air, the physiologic process that exchange carbon dioxide from fresh air.
1. Via gas exchange
2. Help cells to receive oxygen and remove waste carbon dioxide
3. Also Help control pH level of the blood.

medulla oblongata

Is a nerve tissue lower portion of the brain,brain stem that senses pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid and signals the diaphragm in the higher part of the brain.
Also controls Autonomic activities (involuntary) such as:
heart rate, blood vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, coughing, and sneezing.
- long stem-like structure which makes up the lower part of the brainstem.

components of exhaled air

1. Oxygen 16%
2. Carbon dioxide 3% to 5%
3. Nitrogen 79%

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Fluid produced in the ventricles of the brain that flows in the subarachnoid space and bathes the meninges.
providing protection, nourishment, and waste removal ( pH carbon dioxide and regulate acid-alkaline balance of the body.

Pons

Is part of the brainstem that functions carried out by the cranial nerves and links the medulla oblongata (Respiratory rhythm), active functioning rapid eye movement(REM),and thalamus(sensory,motor,consciousness and alertness)
- two areas that help augment (increases)
- 1. respirations during emotional or physical stress
- 2. Involved in changing the depth of inspiration, expiration, or both.

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thalamus

Is a small structure within the brain located just above the brain stem between the cerebral cortex and the midbrain and has extensive nerve connections to both. The main function is to relay motor and sensory signals (aka neural impulses) to the cerebral cortex.
- roles in sensory: visual, auditory, somatosensory, and gustatory systems.
- roles in motor activity, emotion,memory arousal, and other sensorimotor association functions.

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cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres (corpus callosum) and divides it lengthways into two; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
- It has up to six layers of nerve cells.
- It is covered by the meninges and often referred to as gray matter.
- has been divided into four lobes using certain consistently present grooves (sulci/sulcus) as landmarks.

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cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum)

Is one half of the cerebrum, the part of the brain that controls muscle functions and also controls speech, thought, emotions, reading, writing, and learning.
- left of the brain is responsible for language and speech.
- right of the brain plays a large part in interpreting visual information and spatial processing.
- Is subdivides into a frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobe.
- Surface is made of ridges (gyri,gyrus) and grooves (sulci/sulcus)
- Because of this, it has been called the "dominant"

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Meninges

the three membranes (the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater) that line the skull and vertebral canal and enclose the brain and spinal cord.

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subarachnoid space

A space in the meninges beneath the arachnoid membrane and above the pia mater that contains the cerebrospinal fluid

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Hypoxic drive

A "backup system" to control respiration; senses drops in the oxygen level in the blood.
It is less sensitive and less powerful than the carbon dioxide sensors in the brain stem.

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Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

The amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation; the amount of air that can be inhaled in addition to the normal tidal volume.
(Deepest breath you can take after normal breath).

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Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation.
- Average volume is about 1200 ML in the average adult man.

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Residual Volume (RV)

The air that remains in the lungs after maximal expiration.
- It keeps the lungs open
-ex Wind knocked out

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Dead space

Any portion of the airway that does contain air and cannot participate in gas exchange in the alveoli.
- such as the mouth, trachea, bronchi and the bronchioles.

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Minute Volume (MV)

The volume of air breathed in one minute without conscious effort. Minute volume = Tidal Volume x (breaths/minute)
Or
Respiratory rate × tidal volume = minute volume

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Tidal Volume (TV)

The Amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs during a normal breath
- about 500 mL for an adult.
- rate and depth

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Labor breathing

The use of muscles of the chest, back, and abdomen to assist in expanding the chest; occurs when air movement is impaired. (Much slower or faster breathing than usual)
Normal Respiratory Rate Ranges

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1. Adult
2. Children. 3. Infants

1. Adult 12 to 20 breaths/min

2. Children 12 to 40 breaths/min

3. Infants 30 to 60 breath/min

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agonal breathing (agonal breaths)

Abnormal breathing pattern characterized by slow, gasping breathing, sometimes scene in pt in cardiac arrest.

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Circulatory system

The complex arrangement of connected tubes, including the arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins, that moves blood, oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide, and cellular waste throughout the body. (Has two circuit Systemic & Pulmonary circulation)( aka heart,blood vessels, cardiovascular system)

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Systemic circulation (body)

The general circulation of the blood through the body, as carries oxygen-rich blood flow from the left ventricle of the heart to the entire body and back to the heart via the right atrium

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Pulmonary circulation ( lungs)

The circulation of blood that carries oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle through the lungs and back to the left atrium.
- Oxygen exchange takes place.
also called the lesser circulation.

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Cardiac muscle (Myocardium)

A hollow, involuntary muscular organ, the pump of the circulatory system. - Control by autonomic nervous system and has it own electrical system without the central nervous system control.
- The septum divides it into L/R sides.
- Left side pump blood to the body and has high-pressure with more muscular.
- Right side pump blood to the lungs and has lower-pressure.- which includes nerves and blood vessels

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1) Atrium (atria plural)
2) Ventricle

1) Is the upper chamber through which blood enters the ventricles of the heart. There are two in the human heart – the left receives blood from the pulmonary (lung) circulation, and the right receives blood from the venae cavae (venous circulation).
2) Is one of two large chambers toward the bottom of the heart that collect and expel blood towards the peripheral beds within the body and lungs. The blood pumped supplied by an atrium, an adjacent chamber in the upper heart that is smaller.

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Aorta

Is the largest blood vessel (arterial trunk) in the body. This artery is responsible for transporting oxygen rich blood from your heart to the rest of your body.
Begins at the left ventricle of the heart, extending upward into the chest to form an arch.

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Circulation of the heart

Blood comes into the right atrium from the body, moves into the right ventricle and is pushed into the pulmonary arteries in the lungs. After picking up oxygen, the blood travels back to the heart through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium, to the left ventricle and out to the body's tissues through the aorta.

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Pulmonary veins

The four veins that return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.

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Chordae tendineae

thin bands of fibrous tissue that attach to the valves in the heart and prevent them from inverting

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1) Heart Rate (HR)
2) Stroke Volume (SV)

1) Number of beats per minute

2) The volume of blood pumped forward with each ventricular contraction. Also in 1 min blood volume of 5 to 6 L is circulated through a vessels.

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Cardiac Output (CO)

A measure of the volume of blood circulated by the heart in 1 minute, calculated by multiplying the stroke volume by the heart rate.
CO=HRxSV

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Tunica media

The middle and thickest layer of tissue of a blood vessel wall, composed of elastic tissue and smooth muscle cells that allow the vessel to expand or contract in response to changes in blood pressure and tissue demand.

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21 steps of circulation

- 1.Superior/Inferior Vena Cava 2.R Atrium 3.Tricuspid Valve 4.R Ventricle 5.Pulmonary Valve 6.Pulmonary Arteries 7.Pulmonary Arterioles 8.Pulmonary Capillaries 9.Pulmonary Venules 10.Pulmonary Veins 11.L Atrium 12.Mitral Valve 13.L Ventricle 14.Aortic Valve 15.Aorta 16.Systemic Arteries 17.Systemic Arterioles 18.Systemic Capillaries 19.Systemic Venules 20.Systemic Veins 21.Superior/Inferior Vena Cava (back to the heart)

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Arteries

A blood vessels that deliver oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the tissues of the body.
- branch smaller then into arterioles then vest network of capillaries.
- carry blood away from the heart.

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Aorta branches supply's

Carotid arteries - blood vessels to the Brain
Coronary arteries- blood vessels to the Heart
Hepatic arteries- blood vessels to the Liver
Renal arteries- Kidney
Mesenteric arteries- blood vessels to the Digestive system

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Pulmonary Artery

The only artery that carrying oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation.
Also branches to pulmonary capillary system located in the thin walls of the alveoli.

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Arterioles

The smallest branches of arteries leading to the vast network of capillaries.

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Pulse

The wave of pressure created as the heart contact and forces blood out the left ventricle and into the major arteries.

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Capillary vessels

The tiny blood vessels between the arterioles and venules that permit transfer of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste between body tissues and the blood cells.

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Arteriovenous Shunt or Fistula

Its a abnormal back flow to capillaries level by directing blood flows from an artery into a vein, bypassing some capillaries.(receive less blood) Normally, blood flows from your arteries to your capillaries, and then on to your veins

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sphincter

Muscular arranged in circles that are able to decrease the diameter of tube.
ex return, bladder, and blood vessels

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Veins

Blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart and has a thinner wall than arteries to form SVC & IVC.

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Superior vena cava

A vein that is the second largest vein in the human body and returns blood to the right atrium of the heart from the upper half of the extremities. Ex head, neck

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Inferior vena cava

A vein that is the largest vein in the human body and returns blood to the right atrium of the heart from bodily parts below the diaphragm. Ex lower extremity

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Systemic Vasular Resistance (SVR)

Is resistance to blood flow within all the blood vessels except the pulmonary vessels (the higher the pressure of blood within the vessel)

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lymphatic system

Is an organ system in vertebrates that's is part of the circulatory system and the immune system. network of tissues and organs that help protecting your body from illness-causing invaders, maintaining body fluid levels, absorbing digestive tract fats and removing cellular waste( body toxins)
- drains fluid (called lymph) that has leaked from the blood vessels into the tissues and empties it back into the bloodstream via the lymph nodes.
- It is made up of a large network of lymph,, lymph nodes, lymphatic or lymphoid organs, and lymphoid tissues.
- located primarily is red bone marrow, and thymus gland/ secondary is lymph nodes, spleen (the largest), tonsils and certain tissue in various mucous membrane layers in the body. ex: heart, lungs, intestines, liver, and skin that contain tissue.

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Lymph or lymphatic fluid

Is part of the lymphatic system. It collects the extra fluid that drains from cells and tissues (that is not reabsorbed into the capillaries) plus other substances.
- Also transports infection-fighting white blood cells (lymphocytes).

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lymphatic vessels and ducts

Is part of the lymphatic system. Networks of capillaries (microvessels) and a large network of thin-walled vessels (tubes), structured like blood vessels, located throughout your body that carry lymph away from tissues.
- collect and filter lymph (at the nodes,gland) as it continues to move toward larger vessels called collecting ducts.

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lymph nodes, lymph glands

Is part of the lymphatic system. A small bean-shaped tissues found along the lymphatic vessels that is part of the body's immune system. Filter substances that travel through the lymphatic fluid, and they contain lymphocytes (white blood cells) that help the body fight infection and disease.
- There are hundreds found throughout the body.

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Lymphatic (lymphoid) organs

Is part of the lymphatic system. A defined anatomical (body structure) sites, organ that carries out various immune functions. It also has a primary and a secondary
- Primary organs: red bone marrow and the thymus. They create special immune system cells called lymphocytes.
- Secondary organs: lymph nodes, spleen (the largest), tonsils and certain tissue in various mucous membrane layers in the body (for instance in the bowel). It is in these organs where the cells of the immune system do their actual job of fighting off germs and foreign substances.

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lymphoid tissues

Is part of the lymphatic system. Tissues that contain mature and circulating lymphocytes (white blood cells).
- connective tissues dominated by lymphocytes

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Spleen

An organ that is part of the lymphatic system; it produces lymphocytes(white blood cells) filters the blood, stores blood cells, and destroys old blood cells. Also assist in the immune response, hold about 450 ml of blood, and causes frequently injury abdominal injury.( blunt trauma severe internal bleeding)

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Plasma

Yellow fluid that carries the blood cells and nutrients. Also contains carbonic acid which dissolves. (transport carbon dioxide). -helps to deliver nutrients to varies organs and to remove waste products from the body

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Red blood cells

It contains hemoglobin which delivering oxygen to the body tissues—via blood flow through the circulatory system
Also called (haematids, erythroid cells or erythrocytes) - carry oxygen,nutrients, and waste by products.

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white blood cells

Blood cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. Also called leukocytes or leucocytes (only 1% of the blood)

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Platelets

Tiny, disk-shaped elements that are much smaller than the cells; they are essential in the initial formation of a blood clot, the mechanism that stops bleeding. -stop leakage if a vessel has been damaged

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carbonic acid

A very weak acid formed in solution when carbon dioxide dissolves in water which dissolves in plasma.

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Blood pressure (BP)

The pressure that the blood exerts against the walls of the arteries as it passes through them.

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Systole blood pressure
vs Diastole blood pressure

When pressure within the arteries causing cardiac muscle of the left ventricle contracts it pumps blood from the left ventricle into the aorta.
VS
When pressure within the arteries relax causing cardiac muscle of the ventricle relaxes so the ventricle fills with blood. Also relates to Afterload

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Prelaod

is the force that stretches the cardiac muscle prior to contraction. This force is composed of the volume that fills the heart from venous return. (Amount of blood returning to the heart.)
- To little cause blood presser to falls
- To high cause the heart cannot move blood effectively

155

Afterload

Pressure to be overcome when left ventricles contract ( pressure within the aorta) also same as Diastolic pressure

156

interstitial space

Is when nutrients move from the capillaries into this spaces (space in between the cells) and moves waste from cells through and into the capillaries.

157

hydrostic pressure

Is one of the two main force inside the capillaries occurs as fluid pushes against the vessels walls to force fluid out the capillaries. (Aka container)

158

Oncotic pressure

Is one of the two main force inside the capillaries occurs because proteins in the blood plasma cause water to be pulled into the capillaries by diffusion.

159

Epinephrine

A hormone produced and secreted by the adrenal medulla that prolongs and increases the effects of the sympathetic nervous system
Also know as adrenaline

160

Norepinephrine (NE)

A hormone synthesized by the adrenal medulla; it stimulates the fight or flight response to sympathetic nervous system. A neurotransmitter and drug sometimes used in treatment of shock produces vasoconstriction through its alpha-stimulate properties. Also know as noradrenaline

161

alpha-adrenergic receptors

Portions of the nervous system that, when stimulated, can cause (Alpha- 1 ) constriction of blood vessels and increasing the blood flow pressure.
S/S skin become pale, cool, and clammy. Consist with the heart and blood vessels.

162

beta-adrenergic receptors

Portions of the nervous system that, when stimulated, can cause an (Beta-1) increase in the force of contraction of the heart, an increased heart rate, and (beta-2) bronchial dilation.

163

Baroreceptors

It detect pressure changes in the walls of blood vessels and in portions of the digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts

164

Nervous system

The system that controls almost all activities of the body both voluntary and involuntary. Composed of two major structures the brain and spinal cord.
Divided into two main portion central nervous system(CNS)( the brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system(PNS)(the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord that links CNS to various organs of the body)

165

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Is part of the nervous system that controls most functions of the body and mind. It consists the brain and the spinal cord.

166

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Is part of the nervous system that consists of 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves; these may be sensory nerves, motor nerves, or connecting nerves.
(outside the brain and spinal cord.)

167

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

The part of the nervous system (PNS) that regulates the activities over which there is (voluntary)control.
Ex; walking, talking and writing.

168

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Is part of the nervous system (PNS)
that regulates body functions that occur involuntary control.
Ex; digestion, dilation, and constriction of blood vessels, sweating.
Has two main divisions: Sympathetic. Parasympathetic.

169

Brain

Is a controlling organ of the body center of consciousness and responsible for all of voluntary body activities.
Three major subdivision are cerebrum, cerebellum, and the brain stem.

170

Cerebrum

The largest part of the subdivisions of the brain and made up of several lobes that control movement, hearing, balance, speech, visual perception, emotions, and personality.
Also called gray matter.
composed of four lobes frontal, partial, temporal, and occipital.

171

frontal lobe

Is the largest lobes in the brain (cerebrum) and is responsible for motor areas control movements of voluntary skeletal muscles.
- Brian cells generate impulse sent along a nerve fibers that extend each cells into the spinal cord.
-Also common region of injury in traumatic brain injury.

172

parietal lobe

Is the lobes of the brain (cerebrum) that has cells that receive sensory impulses from the peripheral nerves of the body.
sensory areas are responsible for the sensations of temperature, touch, pressure, and pain involving the skin.

173

occipital lobe

Is the lobes of the brain (cerebrum) that's located in the back and receives visual impulses from the eyes
visual perception ex colour, form and motion.

174

temporal lobe

Is the lobes of the brain (cerebrum) sit behind the ears and are the second largest lobe.
responsible for hearing

175

Cerebellum

One of the three major subdivisions of the brain. It coordinates the various activities of the brain, particularly fine body movements.
also called the "little brain"

176

brain stem

The brain between the spinal cord and cerebrum, surrounded by the cerebellum. Primary part of the (CNS) and controls functions that are necessary for life, such as respiration.
Composed of three sections; midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

177

Midbrain

The part of the brain stem that is responsible for helping to regulate the level of consciousness.
Located between the pons and the cerebral hemispheres

178

Pons

An organ that's part of the brain stem contains numerous important nerve fibers, including those for sleep, respiration, and the medullary respiratory center.
Located below the midbrain and above the medulla.

179

spinal cord

An extension of the brain stem composed of virtually all the nerves (nerve fibers) carrying messages between the brain and the rest of the body. It lies inside of and is protected by the spinal canal.

180

Foremen magnum

A large opening at the base of the skull through which the brain connects to the spinal cord.

181

parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS)

Is a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) which regulates bodily functions which are outside of voluntary control, therefore being automatic. (leads to decreased arousal.) -functions stimulated include sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion, and defecation.

182

Sypatheticnervous system

One of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system that 'Fight or flight' increases alertness and metabolic activities in order to prepare the body for emergency situations.
Ex increase Hr, Resp, pupil dilation, glucose. (involuntary functions)

183

parasympathetic nervous system

One of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for the body's rest and digestion response when the body is relaxed, resting, or feeding.
Also decreases respiration and heart rate and increases digestion.
Mediated largely by the vagus nerve through the chemical acetylcholine.

184

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system and part of the autonomic nervous system (a branch of the peripheral nervous system) that contracts smooth muscles, dilates blood vessels, increases bodily secretions, and slows heart rate.

185

Neurotransmitters

Is a chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure.

186

Abdominal Quadrants 1.RUQ. 2.LUQ. 3.RLQ. 4.LLQ.

1. liver, right kidney, colon, pancreas, gallbladder. 2. liver, spleen, left kidney, stomach, colon, pancreas. 3. colon, small intestine, ureter, appendix. 4. colon, small intestine, ureter

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