Intro to Anatomy and Physiology

the study of form

the study of function

inspection (looking)
palpation (feeling)
auscultation (listening)
percussion (tapping)

study of organs and body parts without the use of magnification
ex. cadavers

study of all structures in a region

study of one system at a time

use of imaging equipment without the use of surgery
ex. x-rays

study of tissues

the study of cells

study of development from fertilized egg to 8th week utero

study of older individuals

study of tissues for signs of disease process

study of nervous system physiology

physiology of the endocrine system

mechanism of diease

how the body responds to exercise

activity of the heart and blood vessel

from hypothesis
design and implement an experiment
collect data
analyze data
report results
peer review

you control it (found on x axis of graphs)

what you measure (found on y axis)

untreated, used for comparison

effects of subject's state of mind on her or his physiology
tested by giving placebo to control group

atom
molecule
organelle
cell
tissue
organ
organ system
organism
***living things are organized this way

no two humans are exactly alike

No body system works in isolation
All systems affect every other system

sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity, etc.. impact physiology
failure to consider variation can lead to overmedication

22 years
154 pounds
light physical activity
2,800 kcal/day

22 years
128 pounds
light physical activity
2,000 kcal/day

tendency of body to maintain a relatively constant internal environment
process that body works to achieve
body monitors temp, pressure, and chemistry

receptor
integrating (control) center
effector

structure that senses change in the body
Ex: during exercise, receptor notices 102 degree body temp

control center that processes the sensory information
makes a decision and directs the response

cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis
Ex: during exercise, creates sweat and moves blood towards extremities

reversal of initial stimulus
ex: if too cold, vessels in the skin constrict and shivering begins so heat is produced

enhancement of initial stimulus
ex: childbirth

-all organisms are composed of cells and cell products
-cell is the simplest structural and functional unit of life
-an organism's structure and functions are due to the activities of the cell
-cells come only from preexisting cells
-cells of all species exhibit biochemical similarities

about 200 types all varying in shapes

thin, flat, scaly

squarish looking

taller than wide

multiple sides, irregularly angular shapes

star like

round to oval

disc shaped

thick in the middle, tapered toward the ends

thread like

most cells are 10-15 micrometers in diameter
need microscope to see

egg cell (100 micrometers long)
can see with naked eye

an overly large cell cannot support itself and may rupture
for a given increase in diameter, volume increases more than surface area

surrounds cell
defines boundaries
keeps inside in and outside out
made of proteins and lipids

includes organelles, cytoskeleton, inclusions, and cytosol
gel like

fluid outside of cells
includes tissue (interstitial) fluid

-determines cell shape
supports structure
organizes cell contents
directs movement of materials within the cell
contributes to movements of the cell as a whole

microfilaments
intermediate filaments
microtubules

6nm thick (thinnest)
helps with movement
made of actin protein

8-10nm thick (medium)
gives cell shape, resists stress
made of keratin protein

25nm thick (largest)
maintains cell shape, holds organelles, acts as railroad tracks for walking motor protein, make axonemes of cilia and flagellum form mitotic spindle
made of tubulin protein

internal structures of a cell, carry out specialized metabolic tasks

nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and golgi complex

ribosomes, centrosomes, centrioles, and basal bodies

largest organelle
cells can be anuclear or multinucleate

double membrane around the nucleus
perforated by nuclear pores

regulate molecular traffic through envelope
hold the two membrane layers together

web of protein like filaments
provides points of attachment for chromatin
helps regulate cell life cycle

material in nucleus
composed of chromatin and nucleoli

threadlike
composed of DNA and protein

masses where ribosomes are produced

system of channels (cisternae) enclosed by membrane

parallel, flattened sacs covered with ribosomes
-continuous w/ outer membrane of nuclear envelope
-produces phospholipids and proteins of the plasma membrane
-synthesizes proteins that are packaged in other organelles or secreted from cell

lacks ribosomes
-cisternae are more tubular and branching
-thought to be continuous with rough ER
-synthesizes steroids and other lipids
-detoxifies alcohol and other drugs
-calcium storage

a system of cisternae that synthesizes carbohydrates and puts finishing touches on protein synthesis
-receives newly synthesized proteins from rough ER
-sort proteins, splices some, adds carbohydrate moieties to some, and packages them into membrane bound golgi vesicles

-some vesicles become lysosomes
-some migrate to plasma membrane and fuse to it
-some become secretory vesicles that store a protein product for later release

disease forming organism

vesicle/package of enzyme (probably a protein) bound by a membrane
"Suicide Sac"
-has the ability to breakdown the cell
-body puts pathogen in vesicle which connects to lysosome and lysosomes breaks down the pathogen

-small granules of protein and RNA
-make proteins
-found in nucleoli, cytosol, and outer surfaces of rough ER and nuclear envelope
-read coded genetic messages (messenger RNA) and assemble amino acids into proteins specified by the code

intracellular hydrolytic digestion of proteins, nucleic acids, complex carbohydrates, phospholipids, and other substances
autophagy
autolysis

digestion of cell's surplus organelles (ability of cell to break itself down)
(self to eat)

"cell suicide"
digestion of a surplus cell y itself
(self to split)

resemble lysosomes but contain different enzymes and are produced by endoplasmic reticulum
specialized vesicle

use molecular oxygen to oxidize organic molecules
abundant in liver and kidneys

catalyze reactions
names usually end in -ase

hollow cylindrical organelle that disposes of surplus proteins
looks like meat grinder

contain enzymes that break down tagged, targeted proteins into short peptides amino acids
-tags proteins it wants to get rid of

organelles specialized fro synthesizing ATP
looks like a "footprint" or kidney bean
continually change shape from spheroidal to thread like

inner membrane folds of mitochondria

spaces between the cristae of the mitochondria

cellular respiration
1. glucose (glycolysis)
2. Pyruvate (prep step)
3. Mitochondrion
4. Kreb's Cycle
5. Electron transport chain
6.ATP

adenosine monophosphate

adenosine diphosphate

adenosine triphosphate
contains the most energy
When molecules need energy to form a reaction, ATP is broken into ADP or AMP and it shares P energy

each is a centriole that originated in centriolar organizing center and then migrated to the membrane

stored cellular products
foreign bodies

glycogen granules, pigments, and fat droplets

viruses, intracellular bacteria, dust particles, and other debris photosynthesized by cell

never enclosed in a unit membrane
not essential for cell survival

anything that has mass and takes up space (solid, liquid, gas)

smallest unit of matter
basic unit of matter

positively charged particles found in nucleus and has mass of 1amu

neutral particles found in the nucleus and has mass 1 amu

negatively charged particles found in circling nucleus in orbitals, negligible mass, always in motion

simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties

elements arranged by atomic number

number or protons in nucleus

the number of protons + the number of neutrons
AKA mass number or atomic weight

Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Sulfur

C

H

O

N

P

Ca

S

I

Fe

K

Na

Cl

Mg

Cr

Co

Cu

Fl

Mn

inorganic elements extracted from soil by plants and passed up food chain to humans
-important fro body structure and enzyme function

Ca, P, Cl, Mg, K, Na, S

orbit in the outermost shell and determine chemical bonding properties of an atom

an atom is the most stable when outer shell of electrons is full

2 electrons

8 electrons

8 electrons

uncharged particles

charged particle (atom or molecule) w/ unequal of protons and electrons

particle that gains electrons
ex. Na^-1

particle that loses electron
ex. Cl^+1

transfer of electrons from one anion to another

short lives particles w/ an unpaired valance electron
VERY reactive
produced by normal metabolic reactions, radiation, and certain chemicals
trigger reactions that destroy molecules and can cause cancer, death of heart tissue and aging

chemicals that neutralize free radicals

substance that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting electric current

imbalance can lead to coma or cardiac arrest

varieties of an element that differ only in the number of neutrons
can be radioactive

accounts for the fact that an element is a mixture of isotopes

unstable isotopes that decay and give off radiation
every element has at least 1
intense radiation can be ionizing and cause genetic mutations and cancer

time required fro 50% to decay to stable state

time required for 50% to disappear from the body

molecule that contains carbon and hydrogen

every molecule that does not contain carbon and hydrogen
everything else

carbon dioxide
oxygen
water

water binds with water

water binds with other molecules

water

polar or charged (sugar)

nonpolar or neutral (fats)

a proton donor

a proton acceptor

7

under 7

over 7

measurement of molarity of H+ on a logarithmic scale

chemical solutions that resist changes in pH

acid=yellow
base=pink

should be slightly basic
crucial for physiological functions

the study of compounds containing carbon

carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids

4
carbon atoms bind readily w/ each other to form carbon backbones

hydroxyl
carbonyl
carboxyl
amino
phosphate

carbohydrates

lipids

proteins

proteins

DNA, ATP

very large organic molecules w/ high molecular weights

macromolecules made of a repetitive series of identical or similar subunits (monomers)

polymer of about 3,000 glucose monomers

joining monomers to form a polyer

easily accessible, readily available source

often found as a ring structure in nature

glucose, galactose, and fructose

glucose

sugar made of 2 monosaccharides

sucrose
lactose
maltose

table sugar
glucose + fructose

sugar in milk
glucose + galactose

grain products
glucose + glucose

short chains of 3 or more monosaccharides
(at least 10)

long chains of monosaccharides
(at least 50)

glycogen
starch
cellulose

energy storage in cells of liver, muscle, brain, uterus, vagina

energy storage in plants that is digestible by humans

structural molecule in plants that is important for human dietary fiber

2:1 structure of hydrogen to oxygen

monosaccharide

hydrophobic organic molecules with high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
have more molecules per gram than carbs

fatty acids
triglycerides
phospholipids
eicosanoids
steroids

long term energy storage/ waterproofing

fatty acids

have a lot of hydrogen

contain some double bonds between carbons in chains (potential to add nitrogen)

have multiple bonds between carbons in chain

must be obtained from food

-2 covalent single c-c bonds angle in opposites on each side of the c=c double bond
-resist enzymatic breakdown in the human body, remain in circulation longer, deposits in the arteries thus raises the risk of heart disease

-2 covalent single c-c bonds angle in the same direction adjacent to the c=c double bond

-similar to neutral fats except one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group
-structural foundation of cell membrane
-amphipathic

hydrophobic

hydrophilic

lipid w/17 carbon atoms in 4 rings

20 carbon compounds derived from arachiolonic acid

the "parent" steroid from which other steroids are synthesized

"good" cholesterol
-lower ratio of lipid to protein
-may help to prevent cardiovascular disease

"bad" cholesterol
-high ratio of lipid to protein
-contributes to cardiovascular disease

-acid fast organisms
-contain mycolic acid in cell walls
-can be stained w/carbolfuschin (red/pink)
-non acid fast stain blue w/methylene blue
-myobacterium tuberculosis

a polymer of amino acid

amino acid
central carbon w/ 3 attachments
-amino group (NH2), carboxyl group (-COOH), and radical group (R group)

proteins
any molecule composed of 2 or more more amino acids joined by peptide bonds

special bond found between amino acids

dipeptides have 2 amino acids
tripeptides have 3 amino acids
polypeptides have more than 15
proteins have more than 50

creates a peptide bond that joins the amino acid of one group to the carboxyl group of the next

unique, 3 dimensional shape of protein crucial to function
proteins can reversibly change conformation and thus function
it is the shape of the protein that gives it its function

protein loses shape/function/form
-extreme heat or pH or heavy metals

sequence of amino acids which is encoded in the genes

coiled or folded shape held together by hydrogen bonds

alpha helix: spring like shape
beta helix: pleated, ribbon like

further bending and folding of proteins into globular and fibrous shapes due to hydrophobic-hydrophilic interations and vander waals forces

compact tertiary structure for proteins within cell membrane and proteins that move freely in body fluids

slender filaments suited for roles in muscle contraction and strengthening of skin and hair

associations of 2 or more polypeptide chains due to ionic compounds and hydrophobic-hydrophilic interactions
-occurs only in some proteins

tough structural protein of hair, nails, and skin surfaces

protein contained deeper in the layers of skin, bones, cartilage, and teeth

a molecule that reversibly binds to a protein

proteins bind cells together
ex. sperm and egg
keeps tissues from falling apart

govern what passes
carriers transport solutes to other side of membranes

molecules with the ability to change shape repeatedly

substance enzyme acts upon

substance produced in the reaction

physical location where enzyme and substrate interact

break down (to release energy)

construct molecules (use energy)

2/3 of human enzymes to require nonprotein cofactor
some are organic
some bind to enzyme and induce a change in its shape which activates the active site
essential to function

organic cofactors derived from water soluble vitamins
accepts electrons from an enzyme in one metabolic pathway and transfer them to an enzyme in another

body's most important energy transfer molecule