Cardiovascular System Anatomy
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1
What are the four chambers of the heart?
Right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, and left ventricle.
2
What do the atria do?
Receive blood returning to the heart.
3
What do the ventricles do?
Pump blood out of the heart.
4
What is the aorta?
The large artery carrying blood from the left ventricle to the body.
5
What are arteries?
Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart.
6
What are arterioles?
Small arteries that regulate resistance and direct blood flow.
7
What are capillaries?
Small vessels where gases, nutrients, and wastes are exchanged.
8
What are venules?
Small vessels that collect blood from capillaries.
9
What are veins?
Blood vessels that return blood to the heart.
10
What are the venae cavae?
Large veins that return systemic blood to the right atrium.
11
What is the pericardium?
The protective sac surrounding the heart.
12
What does the tricuspid valve separate?
The right atrium and right ventricle.
13
What does the bicuspid valve separate?
The left atrium and left ventricle.
14
What do the chordae tendineae do?
Anchor atrioventricular valves and prevent them from inverting.
15
What do papillary muscles do?
Tension the chordae tendineae during ventricular contraction.
16
What are autorhythmic cells?
Heart cells that spontaneously generate action potentials.
17
What are intercalated disks?
Connections that electrically and mechanically link cardiac muscle cells.
18
Does the NCX antiporter directly use ATP?
No; it uses the sodium gradient to exchange sodium and calcium.
19
What is the sinoatrial (SA) node?
The heart's primary pacemaker.
20
What is the atrioventricular (AV) node?
The structure that delays and relays the cardiac electrical signal.
21
What are Purkinje fibers?
Specialized fibers that rapidly conduct impulses through the ventricles.
22
What is the pathway of cardiac electrical conduction?
SA node, atria, AV node, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers.
23
Why is AV node delay important?
It allows the ventricles time to fill before contracting.
24
What is an electrocardiogram (ECG)?
A recording of the heart's electrical activity.
25
What does the P wave represent?
Atrial depolarization.
26
What does the QRS complex represent?
Ventricular depolarization.
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What does the T wave represent?
Ventricular repolarization.
28
What is systole?
The contraction phase of the cardiac cycle.
29
What is diastole?
The relaxation and filling phase of the cardiac cycle.
30
What is stroke volume?
The amount of blood ejected by one ventricle per beat.
31
How is stroke volume calculated?
\$SV = EDV - ESV\$
32
What is end-diastolic volume (EDV)?
The blood volume in a ventricle at the end of filling.
33
What is end-systolic volume (ESV)?
The blood remaining in a ventricle after contraction.
34
How is cardiac output calculated?
\$CO = HR \times SV\$
35
What is cardiac output?
The volume of blood pumped by one ventricle per minute.
36
What is inotropy?
The ability of cardiac muscle to generate force.
37
What is afterload?
The pressure or resistance the ventricle must overcome to eject blood.
38
How is ejection fraction calculated?
\$EF = (SV/EDV) \times 100\$
39
What does ejection fraction measure?
The percentage of EDV ejected with each contraction.
40
What is the Frank-Starling law?
Stroke volume increases as end-diastolic volume increases.
41
What determines EDV?
Venous return to the heart.
42
What are three factors that increase venous return?
Skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump, and sympathetic stimulation of veins.
43
What are positive inotropes?
Agents that increase cardiac contractility.
44
Which chemicals are positive inotropes in the slides?
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and digitalis.
45
What do catecholamines do to calcium storage?
They increase calcium storage through phospholamban-related mechanisms.
46
What is the cardiovascular pressure reservoir?
The arterial system.
47
What is the cardiovascular volume reservoir?
The venous system.
48
Which blood vessels are primarily manipulated to redirect blood flow?
Arterioles.
49
What is the main function of elastic arteries?
To stretch and recoil as blood is pumped from the heart.
50
What is the main function of arterioles?
To regulate resistance and control blood distribution.
51
What is the main function of capillaries?
Exchange substances between blood and tissues.
52
What is the main function of veins?
Return blood to the heart and store blood volume.
53
What is pulse pressure?
The difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure.
54
How is pulse pressure calculated?
\$PP = SBP - DBP\$
55
How is mean arterial pressure (MAP) approximated?
\$MAP \approx DBP + \frac13(PP)\$
56
What is the relationship between MAP, cardiac output, and resistance?
\$MAP \propto CO \times TPR\$
57
What does TPR stand for?
Total peripheral resistance.
58
What two factors determine cardiac output?
Heart rate and stroke volume.
59
What primarily determines arteriolar resistance?
Arteriolar diameter.
60
What happens to resistance when an arteriole constricts?
Resistance increases.
61
What happens to resistance when an arteriole dilates?
Resistance decreases.
62
What is sphygmomanometry?
The measurement of blood pressure using an inflatable cuff.
63
What are Korotkoff sounds?
Sounds heard as blood begins flowing through a compressed artery during cuff deflation.
64
What is shock?
A condition in which circulation cannot adequately deliver blood to tissues.
65
What is myogenic autoregulation?
A local response in which vascular smooth muscle adjusts contraction when stretched.
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What happens when vascular smooth muscle is stretched?
Mechanically gated calcium channels open and the muscle contracts.
67
What is active hyperemia?
Increased blood flow caused by increased tissue metabolic activity.
68
What is reactive hyperemia?
Increased blood flow after a period of restricted blood flow.
69
What is nitric oxide's effect on blood vessels?
It promotes vasodilation.
70
What are histamine and kinins?
Potent vasodilators released by cells in response to local signals.
71
How does norepinephrine affect arterioles through alpha receptors?
It causes vasoconstriction.
72
What happens when sympathetic signals to arterioles decrease?
The vessels dilate.
73
What is the baroreflex?
A reflex that adjusts cardiovascular activity in response to blood pressure changes.
74
What do baroreceptors detect?
Stretch in arterial walls caused by blood pressure.
75
Where is blood flow velocity fastest?
In the aorta.
76
Where is blood flow velocity slowest?
In the capillaries.
77
Why is blood flow slowest in capillaries?
They have the greatest total cross-sectional area.
78
What is bulk flow?
Movement of fluid across capillary walls due to pressure differences.
79
What is filtration?
Movement of fluid out of capillaries.
80
What is absorption?
Movement of fluid into capillaries.
81
What is hydrostatic pressure?
The pressure a fluid exerts against a surface.
82
What is colloid or oncotic pressure?
The osmotic pull created by proteins in the blood.
83
What is edema?
Excess fluid accumulation in the tissues.
84
What do lymph vessels do?
Return excess interstitial fluid to the cardiovascular circulation.
85
What is atherosclerosis?
An inflammatory process involving plaque buildup in arterial walls.
86
Which factors contribute to cardiovascular disease?
Smoking, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, and untreated hypertension.
87
Which cardiovascular disease risk factors are not controllable?
Sex, age, and family history.
88
What is HDL cholesterol commonly called in the slides?
Healthy cholesterol.
89
What is LDL cholesterol commonly called in the slides?
Lethal cholesterol.
90
What is hypertension?
Persistently elevated blood pressure.
91
What are the three major constituents of blood?
Plasma, red blood cells, and formed elements including white blood cells and platelets.
92
What is plasma?
The liquid portion of blood.
93
What is albumin?
A plasma protein that contributes to colloid osmotic pressure.
94
What are globulins?
Plasma proteins that include proteins involved in immune defense and transport.
95
What is fibrinogen?
A plasma protein that is converted into fibrin during clotting.
96
What does transferrin do?
Transports iron in the blood.
97
What is hematopoiesis?
The production of blood cells.
98
Where does blood cell production occur?
In red bone marrow.
99
What is yellow marrow?
Bone marrow that primarily stores fat.
100
What does erythropoietin stimulate?
Red blood cell production.
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What does thrombopoietin stimulate?
Platelet production.
102
What is an interleukin?
A signaling molecule involved in regulating immune and blood cell activity.
103
What is hematocrit?
The percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells.
104
What is hemoglobin?
The oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells.
105
What are the main functions of red blood cells?
Transport oxygen and contribute to carbon dioxide transport.
106
What are the main functions of white blood cells?
Defend the body against pathogens and foreign material.
107
What is the main function of platelets?
Help stop bleeding by forming platelet plugs and supporting clotting.
108
What are the five types of white blood cells?
Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.
109
What is anemia?
A condition involving reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
110
What is hemostasis?
The process that stops bleeding.
111
What are the three steps of hemostasis?
Vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation.
112
What happens during vascular spasm?
The damaged blood vessel constricts.
113
How does a platelet plug form?
Platelets adhere to the damaged area, activate, and aggregate.
114
What is coagulation?
The process that converts a platelet plug into a fibrin-reinforced clot.
115
What are the two coagulation pathways?
Intrinsic and extrinsic pathways.
116
What is the intrinsic coagulation pathway also called?
The contact activation pathway.
117
Which factor begins the intrinsic pathway in the slides?
Factor XII.
118
What is the extrinsic coagulation pathway also called?
The cell injury pathway.
119
Which factor is associated with the extrinsic pathway in the slides?
Factor III.
120
Which factor begins the common coagulation pathway?
Factor X.
121
What does thrombin do?
Converts fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin.
122
What is fibrin?
An insoluble protein polymer that forms a mesh in a blood clot.
123
What is a thrombus?
A blood clot formed within a blood vessel.
124
What is fibrinolysis?
The breakdown of a fibrin clot.
125
What does plasmin do?
Breaks down fibrin.
126
How is plasminogen activated?
Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) converts it into plasmin.
127
What are the four functions of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange, pH regulation, protection, and vocalization.
128
What drives bulk flow in the respiratory system?
Air moves from higher pressure to lower pressure.
129
What creates pressure gradients for breathing?
The respiratory muscles acting as a muscular pump.
130
What primarily affects resistance to airflow?
The diameter of the airways.
131
What is ventilation?
Movement of air into and out of the lungs.
132
What is respiration?
Gas exchange between the air, blood, and tissues.
133
What are the three main purposes of the upper airways?
The slides do not specify all three purposes.
134
What do Type I alveolar cells do?
Provide the thin surface for gas exchange.
135
What do Type II alveolar cells do?
Synthesize surfactant.
136
What do alveolar macrophages do?
Ingest foreign material in the alveoli.
137
What is the purpose of airway mucus?
The slides identify mucus as part of airway protection but do not detail its formation.
138
What is Fick's law used to describe?
The rate of diffusion across a surface.
139
What is Boyle's law?
Pressure and volume are inversely related when temperature is constant.
140
What is the Boyle's law equation?
\$P_1V_1 = P_2V_2\$
141
What happens to gas pressure when volume decreases?
Pressure increases.
142
What is Dalton's law?
The total pressure of a gas mixture equals the sum of its partial pressures.
143
What is a respiratory cycle?
One complete inhalation and exhalation.
144
What is tidal volume?
The volume of air moved during a normal breath.
145
What is the difference between a lung volume and a lung capacity?
A capacity combines two or more lung volumes.
146
What is a pneumothorax?
Air entering the pleural cavity, disrupting the pressure that keeps the lung inflated.
147
What happens when the pleural cavity opens to the atmosphere?
Air enters and the lung collapses toward its unstretched size.
148
What is surface tension?
The force created by attraction between liquid molecules lining the alveoli.
149
What does surfactant do?
Reduces surface tension in the alveoli.
150
Which alveolar cells produce surfactant?
Type II alveolar cells.
151
What is the law of Laplace for an alveolus?
\$P = \frac\$
152
According to Laplace's law, what happens to pressure in a smaller alveolus?
It is higher if surface tension is equal.
153
How does surfactant help stabilize alveoli?
It reduces surface tension, especially in smaller alveoli.
154
What is compliance?
The ability of the lungs to stretch.
155
What does low lung compliance mean?
The lungs require more force to stretch.
156
What is elastance?
The ability of the lungs to return to resting volume after stretching.
157
What happens to airway resistance when airway diameter increases?
Resistance decreases.
158
What happens during bronchoconstriction?
Airway diameter decreases and resistance increases.
159
What happens during bronchodilation?
Airway diameter increases and resistance decreases.
160
Which autonomic division promotes bronchoconstriction?
Parasympathetic.
161
What promotes bronchodilation in the slides?
Sympathetic stimulation of beta-2 receptors by epinephrine.
162
What is total pulmonary ventilation?
The volume of air moved in and out of the lungs per minute.
163
How is total pulmonary ventilation calculated?
\$\text = TV \times RR\$
164
What does RR represent in ventilation calculations?
Respiration rate.
165
What is eupnea?
Normal, quiet breathing.
166
What is hyperpnea?
Increased depth and/or rate of breathing in response to increased metabolic demand.
167
What is hyperventilation?
Ventilation that exceeds the body's carbon dioxide production.
168
What is hypoventilation?
Ventilation that is insufficient relative to the body's carbon dioxide production.
169
What is tachypnea?
Abnormally rapid breathing.
170
What is apnea?
Temporary cessation of breathing.
171
What is dyspnea?
Difficult or uncomfortable breathing.
172
What is COPD?
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
173
What is a restrictive lung disease?
A disease that limits lung expansion.
174
What is an obstructive lung disease?
A disease that limits airflow through the airways.
175
What is the FEV1/FVC ratio?
The fraction of forced vital capacity exhaled in the first second.
176
Why is the FEV1/FVC ratio clinically useful?
It helps distinguish obstructive from restrictive lung disease.
177
How do local controls respond to underventilated alveoli?
They constrict nearby arterioles and divert blood to better-ventilated alveoli.
178
What happens to alveolar oxygen when ventilation decreases?
Alveolar oxygen decreases.
179
What happens to alveolar carbon dioxide when ventilation decreases?
Alveolar carbon dioxide increases.
180
What are the three variables regulated by the cardiopulmonary systems?
The supplied slides do not specify the three variables in the available extracted text.
181
What are the four types of hypoxia?
The supplied slides do not specify them in the available extracted text.
182
What is partial pressure of oxygen (PO2)?
The pressure contributed by oxygen in a gas mixture.
183
What is partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2)?
The pressure contributed by carbon dioxide in a gas mixture.
184
How is oxygen transported in the blood?
Primarily bound to hemoglobin.
185
What part of hemoglobin binds oxygen?
The iron-containing heme groups.
186
How many globin molecules make up hemoglobin?
Four.
187
How many heme groups does hemoglobin contain?
Four.
188
Which elements make up normal adult hemoglobin in the slides?
Two alpha and two beta globin molecules.
189
What is the structure of a heme group?
A porphyrin ring with an iron atom at its center.
190
Where does the iron used to make hemoglobin come from?
The diet.
191
Which protein transports iron in the blood?
Transferrin.
192
Where is excess iron stored?
In the liver as ferritin.
193
What determines how much hemoglobin is bound to oxygen?
The oxygen partial pressure and factors that shift hemoglobin's oxygen-binding affinity.
194
What is the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve?
A graph showing hemoglobin oxygen saturation at different oxygen partial pressures.
195
What does a right shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin curve indicate?
Hemoglobin releases oxygen more readily.
196
What does a left shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin curve indicate?
Hemoglobin holds oxygen more tightly.
197
How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
The supplied extracted text does not specify the transport forms.
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