1Single memory + single bus for instructions & data
Von Neumann Architecture
2Bottleneck caused by shared path for data & instructions
Von Neumann bottleneck
3Separate memory & bus for instructions and data
Harvard Architecture
4Modern processors use mix of Von Neumann + Harvard
Modified Harvard Architecture
51 instruction, 1 data stream (single-core)
SISD
61 instruction, many data streams (e.g., GPUs)
SIMD
7Many instructions, 1 data stream (rare)
MISD
8Many instructions, many data streams (multi-core CPUs)
MIMD
9CPU on a chip, needs external RAM/ROM/I/O
Microprocessor
10Use case of Microprocessors
General-purpose computing (PCs, laptops)
11Processor + RAM + ROM + I/O in one package
Microcontroller
12Use case of Microcontrollers
Embedded systems (cameras, microwaves, IoT)
13Assembly line stages (fetch, decode, execute, write back)
Pipelining
14CPU guesses program path in if/else or loops
Branch Prediction
15Multiple instructions per clock cycle via parallel pipelines
Superscalar Execution
16CPU executes instructions ahead of confirmation
Speculative Execution
171st Gen (1940s–1950s)
Vacuum tubes, stored program concept
182nd Gen (1950s–1960s)
Transistors → smaller, faster, cheaper, reliable
193rd Gen (1960s–1970s)
Integrated Circuits (ICs) → many transistors in one chip
204th Gen (1971–Present)
Microprocessors → Intel 4004, Moore’s Law
213 steps in instruction cycle
Fetch → Decode → Execute
22Pipelining advantage
Multiple instructions overlap in execution
23Problem with branching in pipeline
Pipeline stall
24Solution to branching problem
Branch Prediction
25Main function of the ALU
Operates on binary data
26What does the control unit do?
Interprets instructions and causes them to be executed
27What concept was first implemented in the IAS computer?
Stored-program concept
28What does the stored-program concept mean?
Instructions and data are stored in the same memory
29What replaced vacuum tubes in the 2nd generation?
Transistors
30Why were transistors better than vacuum tubes?
Smaller, cheaper, less heat, more reliable
31What defined the 3rd generation of computers?
Integrated Circuits (ICs)
32What defined the 4th generation of computers?
Microprocessors
33What was the first microprocessor?
Intel 4004
34What is an embedded system?
Electronics + software inside a product (not a general-purpose PC)
35Examples of embedded systems
Cell phones, cameras, microwaves, printers, automotive systems, security systems
36Main parts of embedded system
Processor, memory, sensors, actuators, A/D & D/A converters, I/O ports
37What is the difference between microprocessor and microcontroller?
• Microprocessor = CPU on a chip, needs external memory & I/O
• Microcontroller = CPU + memory + I/O on one chip, more efficient for specific tasks
38Device that converts energy forms
Transducer
39Device that detects physical phenomena & converts to measurable signal
Sensor
40What’s the difference between sensor and transducer?
Sensor = directly detects the physical phenomenon. Transducer = converts energy form
41Statement: All sensors are transducers, but not all transducers are sensors
True
42Computer organization refers to what?
How operational units and interconnections implement the architecture
43Why is computer organization important?
Shows how hardware components work together to execute instructions
44What is frequency
Number of cycles (oscillations) per second, measured in Hertz (Hz)
45What is wavelength (λ)
Distance a wave travels during one complete cycle, measured in meters (m)
46What is wave speed (v)
Speed at which the wave travels through a medium, measured in meters per second (m/s)
47What is the relationship between wave speed, frequency, and wavelength
v = f × λ
48What is the formula for electromagnetic waves in a vacuum
c = f × λ
49What is the unit of frequency
Hertz (Hz)
50What is the unit of wavelength
Meters (m)
51Convert 1 Hz into cycles per second
1 cycle per second
52What is the wavelength of a 100 MHz radio signal
3 m
53How are frequency and wavelength related
They are inversely proportional (higher frequency → shorter wavelength)
54What happens to wavelength at low frequencies (kHz to MHz)
Wavelength becomes longer (meters to kilometers)
55What happens to wavelength at high frequencies (GHz to THz)
Wavelength becomes shorter (millimeters to micrometers)
56What happens to the speed of light in materials like glass or water
It becomes slower compared to vacuum
57What is ELF/SLF/ULF used for
Submarine communication and geological studies
58What is VLF used for
Navigation, time signals, submarine communication
59What is LF used for
Maritime and aeronautical navigation
60What is MF used for
AM radio broadcasting
61What is HF used for
Shortwave radio, international broadcasting, amateur radio
62What is VHF used for
FM radio, TV broadcast, air traffic communication
63What is UHF used for
TV broadcasting, mobile phones, WiFi, GPS
64What is SHF used for
Radar, satellite communication, microwave links
65What is EHF used for
Radio astronomy, advanced radar, experimental communications