1Where is the pituitary gland located?
Connected to hypothalamus via infundibulum
2What are the two parts of the pituitary gland?
Anterior (adenohypophysis) and posterior (neurohypophysis)
3What is the function of the pituitary gland?
Release hormones to tissues and organs
4What is the pathway from stimulus to response?
Skin receptors → afferent PNS → dorsal root → spinal cord → brainstem → thalamus → prefrontal cortex → primary motor cortex → thalamus → brainstem → spinal cord → ventral root → efferent motor neuron → action
5What are the basal ganglia?
Collection of interconnected nuclei that receive sensory and motor input
6What is the function of the basal ganglia?
Action selecting, motor preparation, timing, fatigue, reward-based learning
7What are the 3 parts of the hippocampal formation?
Dentate gyrus, hippocampus proper, subiculum
8What does the hippocampus do?
Consolidates memory into declarative or spatial
9What does the amygdala receive?
Sensory and cognitive information
10What is the function of the amygdala?
Assigns emotional content and projects to thalamus and cortex
11What is the function of the frontal lobe?
Planning and execution of functions
12What is the function of the parietal lobe?
Processes sensory info like touch, pressure, pain, temperature
13What is the function of the temporal lobe?
Auditory, visual, and multimodal processing
14What is the function of the occipital lobe?
Visual processing
15What does the primary motor cortex do?
Plan execution of movement
16What does the primary somatosensory cortex do?
Processes touch, pain, temperature, proprioception
17What separates the motor and somatosensory cortices?
Central sulcus
18What is the brain’s preferred metabolism?
Aerobic metabolism
19Where is brain glycogen stored?
Astrocytes (5–15%) and gray matter
20What is the O2 to glucose ratio ideal for the brain?
6:1
21What is the aerobic pathway of glucose?
Glucose → pyruvate → acetyl CoA
22What is the anaerobic pathway of glucose?
Glucose → pyruvate → lactate + H+
23What does the Circle of Willis supply?
Blood flow to the medial aspect of the brain
24Which structures are supplied by the Circle of Willis?
Brainstem, thalamus, pituitary gland, hypothalamus, hippocampus, basal ganglia
25What is the glymphatic system?
Circulation of blood and CSF around vessels that removes toxins
26What percent of cardiac output goes to the brain?
20% (up to 35% during exercise)
27Why does the brain need continuous blood flow?
It cannot store or utilize oxygen without delivery
28What happens to PaCO2 during moderate exercise?
Increases, leading to increased MCA velocity
29What happens to PaCO2 during strenuous exercise?
Decreases, leading to decreased MCA velocity
30What is the resource-driven model’s key idea?
Finite resources allocated across processes
31What are the three elements of resource-driven model?
Arousal, activation, effort
32What is Kahneman’s model key idea?
Resources are fixed but flexible
33What are enduring dispositions?
Automatic attention to familiar stimuli
34What are momentary dispositions?
Attention to novel, unfamiliar stimuli
35What is evaluation of task demands?
Person decides if they have enough capacity to complete task
36How does arousal affect resources?
Changes available channel capacity
37What is Paillard’s model about?
Quick sensorimotor processing at spinal level with adaptive supervisor
38When does processing become cognitive in Paillard’s model?
When higher brain centers are recruited
39What is the key idea of the data-driven model?
Brain as a computer with limited RAM; too much allocation slows processing
40What are Bowen’s barriers to exercise?
Time, resources, responsibilities, health, transportation, no partner, unsafe environment, limited clinician counseling, lack of education
41What is the reticular formation?
Signaling post for neurotransmitter transmission and catecholamine release
42What are catecholamines?
Excitatory neurotransmitters like dopamine and norepinephrine
43What is an indolamine?
Serotonin
44Where is the noradrenergic pathway located?
Locus ceruleus in the midbrain
45What do beta receptors do in noradrenergic pathway?
Stimulate adenylyl cyclase → cAMP → amplify neuronal activity
46What do alpha receptors do in noradrenergic pathway?
Inhibit signals
47Where is the dopaminergic pathway located?
Substantia nigra and ventral tegmental areas
48Where does the dopaminergic pathway project?
Prefrontal cortex, primary motor cortex, thalamus, pituitary gland
49Where is 80% of dopamine found?
Corpus striatum (putamen)
50What do D1 receptors do?
Stimulate D5, increase adenylyl cyclase activity
51What do D2 receptors do?
Inhibit D3, D4 receptors
52Where is the serotonergic pathway located?
Raphe nucleus
53Where does the serotonergic pathway project?
Every area of brain, especially cerebral cortex
54What do 5HT1 receptors do?
Inhibit
55What are neurotrophins?
Growth factors specific to neurons
56What is BDNF?
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor that protects and maintains neurons
57What role does BDNF play in hippocampus?
Supports dentate gyrus and synaptic plasticity
58What are idols of the cave?
Personal biases
59What are idols of the tribe?
Attention to data that confirms researcher’s desires
60What are idols of the marketplace?
Words instead of measures confirm perception
61What are idols of the theatre?
Entrenched single view of nature regardless of data
62What are naturals?
Things with nature (occur with physiology)
63Give an example of a natural.
Type 1 diabetes
64What are non-naturals?
Things not innate, disease as a result of abuse of non-naturals
65What are contra naturals?
Things against nature (pathology)
66What is the leading cause of death in adults?
Heart disease (23%)
67What is the second leading cause of death in adults?
Cancer (21%)
68What is the third leading cause of death in adults?
Unintentional injuries (6%)
69What is the leading cause of death in children?
Car crash
70What is another leading cause of death in children?
Gun related injury
71What are other causes of death in children?
Malignant neoplasm, suffocation
72What are benefits of exercise on breast cancer?
Decrease recurrent breast cancer by 60%
73What are benefits of exercise on colon cancer?
Decrease colon cancer by >60%
74What are benefits of exercise on heart disease/hypertension?
Decrease by 40%
75What are benefits of exercise on stroke?
Decrease by 27%
76What are benefits of exercise on type 2 diabetes?
Decrease by 58%
77How many hours a day do US adults sit?
7-8 hours
78What percent of US adults >20 years are physically inactive?
50%
79What are the types of glial cells?
Oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, microglia
80How many glial cells are there?
85 billion
81What is the function of glial cells?
Insulation, support, nourishment of neurons, metabolic/functional support
82What are macroglia?
Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, astrocytes
83What is the function of oligodendrocytes?
Form myelin sheath in CNS
84What is the function of Schwann cells?
Form myelin sheath in PNS
85What is the function of astrocytes?
Regulate chemical content of extracellular space
86What are microglia?
Phagocytes that promote tissue repair, remove debris, assist synaptic remodeling
87What is the function of neurons?
Sense changes, communicate changes, command body’s response
88What is a neurite?
Dendrites and axons
89What are the classifications of neurons by polarity?
Unipolar, bipolar, multipolar
90What are the classifications of neurons by info transmission?
Sensory (afferent), motor (efferent), interneurons
91What are the classifications of neurons by axon length?
Golgi type 1 (long), Golgi type 2 (short)
92What is the anatomy of a neuron?
Soma, axon hillock, axon proper, axon terminal
93What are the divisions of the PNS?
Autonomic and somatic
94What are the divisions of the CNS?
Brain and spinal cord
95What does rostral mean?
Anterior, front
96What does caudal mean?
Posterior, tail
97What does dorsal mean?
Superior
98What does ventral mean?
Inferior
99What is a coronal brain section?
Cut from front to back
100What is an axial/transverse/horizontal section?
Cut top to bottom
101What is a sagittal section?
Divide left and right hemispheres
102What are cortices?
2D sheets of neurons with the same function
103What are nuclei?
3D bulbs of neurons
104Where is the medulla and what is its function?
Myencephalon; sensory/motor innervation, respiration, HR, arousal, decussation
105Where is the pons and what is its function?
Metencephalon; bridge to cerebellum, decussation, face/mouth/eye/auditory nuclei, REM sleep, arousal
106Where is the cerebellum and what is its function?
Metencephalon; body positioning, balance, language, attention, learning, mental imagery
107Where is the midbrain and what is its function?
Mesencephalon; CN III and IV, superior colliculus (vision), inferior colliculus (auditory)
108Where is the thalamus and what is its function?
Diencephalon; relay station, bridges hemispheres, receives sensory input
109Where is the hypothalamus and what is its function?
Diencephalon; controls pituitary, circadian rhythms, homeostasis, hormones
110Where is the pituitary gland?
Connected to hypothalamus via infundibulum
111What are the two parts of the pituitary gland?
Anterior (adenohypophysis), posterior (neurohypophysis)
112What is the function of the pituitary gland?
Release hormones to tissues and organs
113What are the components of the limbic system?
Cingulate gyrus, hypothalamus, thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia
114What is the basal ganglia?
Collection of nuclei that sort sensory/motor input
115What are the functions of the basal ganglia?
Action selecting, motor prep, timing, fatigue, reward-based learning
116What are the parts of the hippocampal formation?
Dentate gyrus, hippocampus proper, subiculum
117What is the function of the hippocampus?
Consolidates declarative and spatial memory
118What is the function of the amygdala?
Assigns emotional content, projects to thalamus and cortex
119What is the function of the frontal lobe?
Planning and execution
120What is the function of the parietal lobe?
Sensory info (touch, pressure, pain, temp)
121What is the function of the temporal lobe?
Auditory, visual, multimodal processing
122What is the function of the occipital lobe?
Vision
123What does the primary motor cortex do?
Plan execution of movement
124What does the primary somatosensory cortex do?
Processes touch, pain, temp, proprioception
125What separates the motor and somatosensory cortices?
Central sulcus
126What is the brain’s preferred metabolism?
Aerobic
127Where is brain glycogen stored?
Astrocytes and gray matter
128What is the O2 to glucose ratio for brain metabolism?
6:1
129What is the aerobic pathway of glucose?
Glucose → pyruvate → acetyl CoA
130What is the anaerobic pathway of glucose?
Glucose → pyruvate → lactate + H+
131What does the Circle of Willis supply?
Blood flow to medial aspect of brain
132Which structures are supplied by Circle of Willis?
Brainstem, thalamus, pituitary, hypothalamus, hippocampus, basal ganglia
133What is the glymphatic system?
Circulation of blood and CSF around vessels to remove toxins
134What percent of blood flow goes to the brain?
20% (up to 35% during exercise)
135Why does the brain need blood flow?
No oxygen storage without delivery
136What happens to PaCO2 during moderate exercise?
Increases → increased MCA velocity
137What happens to PaCO2 during strenuous exercise?
Decreases → decreased MCA velocity
138What is the key idea of the resource-driven model?
Finite resources allocated to processes
139What are the 3 elements of the resource-driven model?
Arousal, activation, effort
140What is the key idea of Kahneman’s model?
Resources are fixed but flexible
141What are enduring dispositions?
Automatic attention to familiar stimuli
142What are momentary dispositions?
Attention to novel stimuli
143What is evaluation of task demands?
Person decides if they have capacity for task
144How does arousal affect resources?
Changes available channel capacity
145What is Paillard’s model about?
Quick processing at spinal level with adaptive supervisor
146When does processing become cognitive in Paillard’s model?
When higher brain centers are recruited
147What is the key idea of the data-driven model?
Brain as computer with limited RAM, too much allocation slows processing
148What are Bowen’s barriers to exercise?
Time, resources, responsibilities, health, transportation, no partner, environment, limited counseling, lack of education
149What is the reticular formation?
Signaling post for neurotransmitters, stimulator of catecholamines
150What are catecholamines?
Excitatory neurotransmitters like dopamine and norepinephrine
151What is an indolamine?
Serotonin
152Where is the noradrenergic pathway located?
Locus ceruleus, midbrain
153What does the noradrenergic pathway do?
Increases brain responsiveness, targets every brain area
154What do beta receptors do in noradrenergic pathway?
Stimulate adenylyl cyclase → cAMP → amplify activity
155What do alpha receptors do in noradrenergic pathway?
Inhibit signals
156Where is the dopaminergic pathway located?
Substantia nigra and ventral tegmental areas
157Where does the dopaminergic pathway project?
Prefrontal cortex, motor cortex, thalamus, pituitary
158Where is most dopamine found?
Corpus striatum (putamen, 80%)
159What do D1 receptors do?
Stimulate D5, increase adenylyl cyclase activity
160What do D2 receptors do?
Inhibit D3, D4 receptors
161Where is the serotonergic pathway located?
Raphe nucleus
162Where does the serotonergic pathway project?
Every brain area, especially cerebral cortex
163What do 5HT1 receptors do?
Inhibit
164What are neurotrophins?
Growth factors specific to neurons
165What is BDNF?
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor
166What is the role of BDNF?
Supports neuron survival, plasticity, dentate gyrus function
167What are idols of the cave?
Personal biases
168What are idols of the tribe?
Attention to data confirming desires
169What are idols of the marketplace?
Words instead of measures confirm perception
170What are idols of the theatre?
Entrenched single view regardless of data