Exam 3 Review

55% plasma, 45% formed elements

water, ions, organic molecules (plasma proteins), trace elements and vitamins, gases

RBCs, WBCs, B & T cells, monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, esosinophils, platelets

Carries hydrophobic substances, maintains osmotic pressure, found in plasma,

alpha and beta are transporters & clotting factors. Gamma are antibodies. Found in plasma

blood clotting, found in plasma

bone marrow

thymus

Plasma has fibrinogen, serum does not

Thrombin is an enzymes that converts fibrinogen to fibrin (which can form a clot) and can also convert plasminogen to plasmin (which can break down fibrin)

You get sick

Vaccines

breastmilk/placenta

antibody injections

A antigen and anti-B antibody, can donate to A, AB

B antigen and anti-A antibody, can donate to B, AB

AB antigen, no antibodies, can donate to AB

No antigens, antibodies against A and B, donated to all types

anti A antibodies in type B blood

negative blood can be given to positive or negative blood types

would happen when mom gives birth to second Rh+ baby (treatment: mom must be treated with rhoGAM shot after first birth)

decrease in the O2 carrying capacity of blood (hemmorhagic, iron deficiency, pernicious, sickle cell, aplastic)

decrease in WBCs

decrease in platelets

using erythropoeitin which is secreted by the kidneys which stimulates the bone marrow to create more RBCs

stem cell -> proerythroblast -> basophilic erythroblast -> polychromatophilic erythroblast -> normoblast -> reticulocyte -> mature RBC

no nucleus, can carry O2, CO2, H+, and CO, life span of 4 months

Minimizing blood loss when vascular trauma occurs through
1) vascular spasm
2) platelet plug formation
3) formation of a blood clot

1) Vessel injury occurs
2) Von Willebrand factor adheres to exposed collagen
3) Circulating platelets adhere to exposed collagen fibers
4) Platelets that adhere to collagen are activated
5) Adhering platelets release ADP and thromboxane A2
6) Chemical messengers released by activated platelets activate additional platelets
7) Newly activated platelets aggregate onto adhering platelets

Prothrombin is converted into thrombin. Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin. Fibrin forms clot by combining with platelet plug

Vitamin K deficiency, hepatitis, hemophilia, thrombocytopenia, thrombocytopenic purpura

80% due to lack of factor VIII, 20% due to lack of factor IX (royal disease)

platelet deficiency

Purplish blotches beneath the skin

Fraction of blood occupied by RBCs. Women 37-47%, Men 40-54%. Anemia: low RBCS. Polycythemia: high RBCs

highly mobile phagocytes

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

help with allergic reactions and parasites

secrete histamine and heparin

mature into macrophages

turn into plasma cells that secrete and produce antibodies

cell-mediated immunity, directly destroy specific target cells (helper T cells, natural killer cells)

immune cells in skin and mucosa, secrete histamine

present on all nucleated body cells, present before birth

presented to process antigens by antigen presenting cells (monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, b cells)

part of the immune system designed to rapidly dispose of pathogens in a nonspecific manner

skin, internal linings, secretions, flushing mechanisms

redness, warmth, swelling, pain, loss of function

intensifies effects of interferon, inhibits microbial growth, speeds up repair

1) non-specifically attack virus-invaded and cancer cells
2) are involved in antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity
3) activities enhanced by antibodies
4) activated by cytokines

A group of proteins that sequentially enhance inflammation, attract phagocytes, mark bacteria for destruction, activate mast cells, and form holes in bacterial walls (lyse and kill them)

secreted by invader free cells to warn other cells

antibody mediated immunity using b cells that activate plasma cells which create antibodies

block activity of pathogens, agglutinate, opsonizate, activate the complement cascade and enhance NK cell activity

1. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) display antigens on surface
2. Matching b cell receptor stimulates plasma cells
3. Plasma cells secrete antibodies
4. Antibodies circulate in the blood and lymph to cause agglutination and act as opsonins
5. Some b cells become memory cells

Uses cell-mediated immunity and T cells

1. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) display antigens on surface
2. Matching T cell receptor is stimulated to divide into cytotoxic T cells
3. Cytotoxic T cells bind to antigens and release performin
4. Some cytotoxic T cells become memory cells

specifically activated by a viral antigen, can then kill foreign cells like virus-infected cells and cancer cells

secrete cytokines

nonspecifically lyse virus-infected cells

Usually involves IgE antibodies
1. Allergens bind to matching B-cell receptors
2. IgE antibodies are secreted by plasma cells
3. IgE antibodies are inserted into membranes of mast cells and basophils
4. Allergens bind to matching IgE antibodies present on mast cells
5. Mast cells secrete histamine and other chem. substances.
6. An allergic response is elicited

inappropriate immune attacks against harmless environmental substances

1. Gas exchange
2. Regulation of normal acid-base balance
3. enable speech, singing, etc.
4. Abdominal compression during micturition, defecation, and parturition
5. coughing and sneezing
6. route for water and heat loss
7. activation and deactivation of messenger molecules

a gas's pressure and volume are inversely proportional (given constant temperature). For example, as volume increases, pressure decreases.

Exchange between air and blood, exchange between blood and cells. Alveoli provide a lot of surface for exchange

process by which cells use O2 and produce CO2

1. humidifies air
2. secretes mucus
3.protects the lung
4.adjusts air to body temperature

smaller bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles

gas exchange

respiratory bronchioles and alveolar sacs

External intercostals and diphragm contract -> increased volume -> decreased air pressure -> air moves in

*Passive process*
Diaphragm and external intercostals relax -> elastic tissues recoil -> volume decreases -> increased air pressure -> air moves out

how much you breathe normally

max. amount you can breathe in and out in one breath

Tidal volume X Respiratory Rate = amount of air moved in and out of lungs per minute

Respiratory Rate X (Tidal Volume - Dead Space) = amount of air moved in and out of alveoli per minute

forms wall

secretes surfactant (decrease surface tension)

remove debris

Pressure exerted by that gas alone if pressure exerted by all other gases were removed. Gases move down their pressure gradient

% of gas in air x atmospheric air pressure = partial pressure

physically dissolved 1.5%
bound to Hb 98.5%

physically dissolved (10%)
bound to hemoglobin (carbaminohemoglobin) 30%
As bicarbonate 60%

CO2

Pneumotaxic and apneustic centers fine tune breathing

drives quiet breathing by sending signal to phrenic nerve

stretch receptors send inhibitory signal to prevent over inflation of lungs

the aortic arch and carotid body

*CO2 levels in blood*
also emotional stimuli, chemoreceptors, muscle and join receptors that influence dorsal respiratory group

1. Maintains osmotic balance
2. Controls concentrations of Na+, K+, Ca2+, bicarbonate, H+, etc
3. Controls plasma volume and subsequently blood pressure
4. maintains acid-base balance
5. Excretes metabolic waste (urea, sulfates, creatinine)
6. Maintenance of blood volume through erythropoiesis
7. Regulates Ca2+ homeostasis

the functional unit of the kidney (has both tubular and vascular components)

collects glomerular filtrate

uncontrolled reabsorption and secretion

back into the blood

out of the blood

osmotic gradient, allows for urine of varying concentrations

controlled reabsorption of Na+ and H20, secretion of K+ and H+

collects fluid leaving distal convoluted tubules to be excreted

brings blood in

FILTRATION

takes blood out

supply renal tissues with blood

produces substances for kidney function like renin

Selective transfer of substances from peritubular blood into the renal tubule
Passive or active transport
H+ secretion in all areas
K+ secreted in distal tubule (coupled with Na+ reabsorption)
Organic ions (choline, creatinine) secreted in proximal tbule
Important in elimination of wastes

At least one step requires energy. Glucose (100% reabsorbed), Na+, AA, Cl-

no energy required. H20, Cl-, urea

transports from tubular lumen to peritubular capillaries

the maximum rate a substance can be reabsorbed by carrier molecules

on the the basolateral membrane

Na+, AA, Glucose, K+

H2O

Filtration - Reabsorption + Secretion

Mechanism to regulate glomerular filtration rate (normal 125 ml/min)
Makes distal tubules and collecting duct highly permeable to water, urine becomes more concentration
works by opening aqauporins
deficiency linked to diabetes insipidus
Excess linked to hypertonicity

The rate at which a substance is cleared from plasma by the kidney. Expressed as ml of plasma cleared/minute.
Rate of urine formation x concentration of substance in urine/plasma
Tubular secretion: plasma clearance > GFR
Tubular reabsorption: plasma clearance < GFR
Neither reabsorbed nor secreted: plasma clearance = GFR (for example inulin)

a temporary storage site for urine
stretch receptors are stimulated when filled with 200-400ml of urine
contracts when stimulated by parasympathetic nerves
can be prevented by contracting by signal from the cerebral cortex to a point

Fat does not take up water so people with more adipose tissue are more at risk for dehydration

plasma and interstitial fluid (similar)

most

H2O
Osmolarity of ICF = osmolarity of ECF

serves as a reservoir to buffer changes in the ECF

towards

most active form of angiotensin/angiotensinogen

precise regulation of free H+ concentration in body fluids

7.35-7.45 (slightly basic)
the pH of venous blood is slightly less than the pH of arterial blood

arterial blood pH less than 7.35
if it gets lower than 6.8 -> death
decreased excitability
hyperkalemia

arrythmias, muscle weakness, cramps, dizziness, nausea, diarrhea

arterial blood pH greater than 7.45
greater than a pH of 8 causes death
increased excitability
hypokalemia

arrythmias, muscle weakness and tenderness, hypotension, confusion, shortness of breath

1. Chemical buffer systems
2. Respiratory system
3. Kidneys

Chemical buffer system, ECF buffer against non-carbonic acids

Chemical buffer system, ICF, ECF

Chemical Buffer system that manages changes to carbonic acid

Chemical buffer system, (urinary, ICF)

adjust H+ secretion and HCO3- reabsorption

low pH due to high H+ concentration

high pH due to low H+ concentrations

increases

gets rid of more CO2

holds onto more CO2

hypoventilation, diarrhea

hyperventilation, vomiting

Decreased rate of CO2 removal
Loss of HCO3

increased rate of CO2 removal
loss of stomach acid

hyperventilation
pee off H+
reabsorb HCO3-

Hypoventilation
reabsorb H+
pee off HCO3-

1)Kidneys detect reduced oxygen-carrying capacity in blood
2) Kidneys release erythropoietin into blood
3) Red bone marrow respond to erythropoietin
4) More erythrocytes enter the circulatory system
5) Additional erythrocytes increase the oxygen carrying capacity of blood

adds factors for labored breathing

establishes rhythm