NACC - M3 - Terms

A person experiencing development from infancy through puberty. Example: A 7-year-old in middle childhood.

The first 2 years of life, before complex speech develops. Example: A baby babbling simple sounds at 12 months.

Orderly changes in structures, traits, and behaviors over time. Example: Learning to crawl, then walk, then run.

Changes in size or quantity. Example: A child gaining height and weight between ages 5 and 6.

Change in type or kind. Example: Transition from crawling to walking.

Change in amount or degree. Example: Running faster as motor skills improve.

Framework of assumptions and explanations to describe, predict, and influence behavior. Example: Using Piaget's theory to predict how children solve problems at different ages.

Focus on observable behavior shaped by environment and learning. Example: Teaching a child to read through reinforcement and practice.

Development driven by biological growth and heredity. Example: Infants naturally learning to walk as their bodies mature.

Development shaped by unconscious conflicts and psychosexual stages. Example: Oral stage fixation leading to habits like nail biting.

Development across stages of social and emotional challenges. Example: Trust vs. mistrust in infancy shaping later relationships.

Children progress through stages of thinking and problem-solving. Example: A child in the concrete operational stage solving math problems with logic.

Watching and recording children's behavior in natural or structured settings. Example: Observing play in a preschool classroom.

In-depth study of one child. Example: Documenting the development of a child with autism.

Collecting data from large groups. Example: Asking parents about children's sleep habits.

Controlled study of cause-and-effect. Example: Testing whether praise increases children's persistence on tasks.

Comparing different ages at one time. Example: Studying vocabulary differences between 4-, 6-, and 8-year-olds.

Tracking the same individuals over time. Example: Following children's reading skills from kindergarten to grade 5.

Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods. Example: Studying multiple age groups over several years.

Protecting children's rights and well-being in research. Example: Gaining parental consent before observing children in a study.

Transmission of traits from parent to child through genes. Example: A child inheriting curly hair from a parent.

Branch of biology that studies heredity. Example: Research on how genes influence intelligence.

Rod-shaped structures in cell nuclei that contain genes; humans have 46 (23 pairs). Example: The 21st chromosome pair linked to Down syndrome.

Basic unit of heredity, made of DNA. Example: A gene determining eye color.

Double helix structure carrying genetic code. Example: Adenine pairs with thymine, cytosine pairs with guanine.

Traits influenced by many genes. Example: Height or intelligence.

Fertilized egg formed by union of sperm and ovum. Example: The single cell that begins human development.

Cell division for growth and tissue repair; produces identical cells. Example: Skin cells regenerating after a cut.

Sudden variation in a heritable characteristic. Example: Genetic change caused by radiation exposure.

Cell division producing gametes (sperm/ova) with 23 chromosomes. Example: Formation of sperm cells during reproduction.

Any chromosome pair except sex chromosomes. Example: Chromosome 12 carrying traits for hair texture.

X or Y chromosome determining sex. Example: XX = female, XY = male.

Identical twins from one zygote splitting. Example: Two babies with identical genetic makeup.

Fraternal twins from two ova fertilized by different sperm. Example: Twins who look different and have unique genetic codes.

Release of an ovum from an ovary. Example: Occurs monthly in the female reproductive cycle.

Member of a gene pair. Example: One allele for brown eyes, one for blue eyes.

Two identical alleles for a trait. Example: BB for brown eyes.

Two different alleles for a trait. Example: Bb for brown eyes (dominant) and blue eyes (recessive).

Trait expressed when paired with a recessive allele. Example: Brown eyes over blue eyes.

Trait expressed only when paired with another recessive allele. Example: Blue eyes when both parents carry recessive genes.

Person with one dominant and one recessive allele; transmits trait without showing it. Example: Parent carrying recessive gene for cystic fibrosis.

Disorders caused by interaction of heredity and environment. Example: Diabetes influenced by genes and lifestyle.

Extra chromosome on the 21st pair; intellectual disability and physical traits. Example: Rounded face, protruding tongue, developmental delays.

Disorders caused by abnormal number of sex chromosomes. Example: Turner syndrome (single X chromosome in females).

Males with extra X chromosome; infertility, low testosterone, mild intellectual disability. Example: Enlarged breasts and language delays.

Females with single X chromosome; infertility, short stature, low estrogen. Example: Lack of menstruation and breast development.

Females with normal appearance but lower language skills and memory. Example: Increased risk of infertility.

Enzyme disorder from recessive gene; affects metabolism. Example: Requires special diet to prevent intellectual disability.

Period from conception to implantation (first 2 weeks). Example: A zygote traveling through the fallopian tube before attaching to the uterus.

Fluid-filled ball of cells formed in the germinal stage. Example: A hollow sphere of cells preparing for implantation.

Inner part of the blastocyst that develops into the embryo. Example: Cells that later form the nervous system and organs.

Outer layer of the blastocyst forming support structures. Example: Cells that develop into placenta and umbilical cord.

Weeks 3-8; major organ systems differentiate. Example: Development of the heart, brain, and limbs.

Growth from head to tail. Example: Head develops before lower body parts.

Growth from the central axis outward. Example: Arms develop before hands and fingers.

From the third month until birth; rapid growth and refinement. Example: Fetus begins thumb-sucking and responding to sound.

Outer layer forming nervous system, sensory organs, skin. Example: Neural tube developing into brain and spinal cord.

Structure that develops into the brain and spinal cord. Example: Early ridges folding to form the nervous system.

Inner layer forming lungs, digestive system, liver, pancreas. Example: Cells developing into respiratory structures.

Middle layer forming muscles, skeleton, circulatory and reproductive systems. Example: Cells differentiating into bones and muscles.

Male sex hormones critical for male genital development. Example: Testosterone guiding development of testes and ducts.

Male hormone produced by testes; promotes male sexual characteristics. Example: Stimulates development of sperm and male genitalia.

Protective sac surrounding fetus. Example: Cushioning fetus from injury.

Fluid within sac that suspends and protects fetus. Example: Maintaining stable temperature for fetus.

Organ connecting fetus to mother for nutrient/waste exchange. Example: Oxygen passes from mother's blood to fetus.

Tube connecting fetus to placenta. Example: Pathway for nutrients and waste removal.

Harmful agents that can damage prenatal development. Example: Alcohol causing fetal alcohol syndrome.

Typical period between conception and birth (~266-280 days). Example: A full-term pregnancy lasting about 9 months.

Early, usually painless "false" contractions that tone uterine muscles. Example: A woman feels irregular tightening in her abdomen at 7 months.

Hormones that stimulate uterine contractions. Example: Hormones causing cramping before menstruation and triggering labor.

Pituitary hormone that stimulates strong labor contractions. Example: Released during childbirth to help expel the baby.

A newborn child. Example: A baby in the first days after birth.

To thin the cervix during labor. Example: Cervical tissue thinning before dilation.

To widen or enlarge the cervix. Example: Cervix opening to 10 cm for delivery.

Movement of the fetus's head into the birth canal. Example: Baby's head descending during late first stage of labor.

Surgical incision between vagina and anus to widen opening. Example: Performed to prevent tearing during crowning.

Individual trained to assist women in childbirth. Example: A midwife supporting a home birth.

Medical method to reduce or eliminate pain. Example: Epidural block numbing pain below the waist.

Method without anesthesia; emphasizes relaxation and breathing. Example: A mother practicing breathing exercises during contractions.

Breathing, relaxation, and coaching techniques to lessen pain and anxiety. Example: Partner timing contractions and guiding breathing during delivery.

Weeks after childbirth when mother recovers physically and emotionally. Example: Experiencing "baby blues" or postpartum depression.

Emotional connection between parent and newborn. Example: Skin-to-skin contact after birth.

Sudden, unexplained death of an infant under 1 year. Example: Infant dying unexpectedly during sleep.

Growth proceeds from head to tail. Example: Infants can hold up their heads before they can walk.

Growth moves from the trunk outward. Example: Infants control their shoulders before their fingers.

Behaviors become more specific and controlled with age. Example: A newborn thrashes when pricked, but a toddler withdraws the finger calmly.

Disorder where infants fail to gain weight normally. Example: A baby feeding poorly and not growing as expected.

Severe malnutrition causing wasting away. Example: An infant with dangerously low weight due to lack of nutrients.

Growth returning to genetically determined patterns after disruption. Example: A child catching up in growth after recovering from illness.

Feeding infants with mother's milk; linked to health benefits. Example: Breastfeeding reduces risk of obesity later in life.

Alternative to breast milk, enriched with iron. Example: Used when breastfeeding is not possible.

Reflex pushing out solids to prevent choking. Example: An infant rejecting a spoonful of cereal before 4 months.

Thin outer layer of brain vital for thought and reasoning. Example: The cortex supports problem-solving and language.

Nerve cell transmitting information. Example: Neurons firing to help an infant respond to sound.

Large movements using arms, legs, and torso. Example: Crawling across the floor.

Small, precise movements. Example: Picking up a Cheerio with fingers.

Ability to perceive objects as the same shape despite changes in angle. Example: Recognizing a toy car whether viewed from the side or above.

Sharpness of vision. Example: Newborns see blurry images, but vision improves over months.

Mental structure or action pattern used to organize knowledge. Example: An infant's sucking reflex as a scheme for feeding.

Incorporating new experiences into existing schemes. Example: A baby sucking on a new type of bottle nipple the same way as before.

Modifying schemes to fit new experiences. Example: Adjusting sucking pattern when milk flow is faster than expected.

Reflexive actions like sucking and grasping. Example: Turning head toward a sound automatically.

Repetition of actions focused on the infant's own body. Example: Repeatedly moving hands to watch them.

Repetition of actions that affect the environment. Example: Shaking a rattle to hear the sound.

Goal-directed behavior combining actions. Example: Lifting a cloth to reach a hidden toy.

Trial-and-error experimentation. Example: Varying ways to pull a stick through playpen bars.

Mental problem-solving and symbolic thought. Example: Imagining how to open a box before trying it physically.

Recognition that objects continue to exist even when out of sight. Example: Searching for a toy hidden under a blanket.

Mistake where infants search for an object in its old location rather than the new one. Example: Looking under the first screen even after seeing the toy hidden under a second.

Decreased response to repeated stimulation. Example: An infant stops looking at a toy after repeated exposure.

Copying actions or sounds of others. Example: A newborn sticking out their tongue after seeing an adult do it.

Universal stage of repetitive consonant-vowel sounds. Example: “ba-ba-ba” or “da-da-da.”

Simplified, melodic language used with babies. Example: Saying “yummy yummy” instead of “food.”

Hypothetical mental structure proposed by Chomsky for innate language learning. Example: Children naturally grasp grammar rules without formal teaching.

Emotional bond between infant and caregiver. Example: Baby cries when mother leaves and calms when she returns.

Distress when separated from caregiver. Example: Infant fusses when parent leaves the room.

Mild protest at separation, joy at reunion, easily comforted. Example: Child explores freely but returns to mother for reassurance.

Indifference to caregiver's departure and return. Example: Infant ignores mother after she comes back.

Severe distress at separation, mixed cling/push behavior at reunion. Example: Infant clings to mother but also resists comfort.

Confused, contradictory behaviors toward caregiver. Example: Infant approaches mother but looks away or freezes.

Birth-3 months; indiscriminate attachment to anyone. Example: Infant smiles at any adult.

3-4 months; preference for familiar figures. Example: Infant calms more quickly with mother than stranger.

6-7 months; strong dependence on primary caregiver. Example: Infant shows separation anxiety when mother leaves.

Attachment behaviors directed toward any person. Example: Infant seeks comfort from both parents and strangers.

Attachment requires object permanence. Example: Infant misses caregiver because they understand she still exists when absent.

Caregiver becomes conditioned reinforcer through feeding and care. Example: Infant associates mother with satisfaction of hunger.

Caregiver is a love object; trust develops through sensitive care. Example: Infant develops trust when mother consistently meets needs.

Attachment based on comfort, not just food. Example: Infant monkey prefers cloth mother over wire mother with food.

Large muscle movements used in locomotion. Example: Running, climbing, skipping.

Small muscle coordination for manipulation. Example: Holding a pencil, buttoning a shirt.

Thick bundle of nerve fibers connecting brain hemispheres. Example: Enables integration of logical and emotional functioning.

Brain's ability to compensate for injury by reorganizing functions. Example: A young child regains speech after damage to language areas.

Process of coating nerve fibers to speed transmission. Example: Myelination of cerebellum pathways improves balance and coordination.

Play fighting, chasing, and wrestling; not aggression. Example: Children laughing while play-wrestling on the playground.

Degree of physical movement and energy in children. Example: Some children are naturally more restless and active than others.

Inadequate nutrition affecting growth and development. Example: A child lacking iron shows signs of anemia.

Excess body fat that may impair health. Example: Linked to a sedentary lifestyle and poor diet.

Walking or performing activities during sleep. Example: A child wandering at night without awareness.

Involuntary urination during sleep. Example: Common in preschool years, often resolves with age.

Process of teaching children to control elimination. Example: Most children achieve training between ages 2-3.

Progression from scribbles to shapes, designs, and pictorial representations. Example: A 4-year-old drawing a house with recognizable features.

Children use symbols but lack logical operations. Example: A child calls a doll "baby" and pretends to feed it.

Using objects or actions to represent something else. Example: Pretending a pine cone is an ice cream cone.

Flexible, reversible mental manipulations of objects. Example: Understanding that clay flattened into a pancake is still the same amount of clay.

Inability to see things from another's perspective. Example: A child assumes everyone sees the mountains exactly as they do.

Explaining events by will or intention rather than natural cause. Example: "The sun shines because it wants to keep me warm."

Linking two specific events without logical cause. Example: "It's dark, so I must go to sleep."

Attributing life and intentions to inanimate objects. Example: "Stars twinkle because they're happy."

Believing natural events are human-made. Example: "Rain is someone emptying a watering can."

Focusing on one aspect of a situation while ignoring others. Example: Thinking a taller glass has more water than a shorter, wider one.

Failure to understand actions can be reversed. Example: Not realizing water poured back into the original glass restores equality.

Understanding that properties (volume, mass, number) remain the same despite changes in form. Example: Knowing clay is the same amount whether shaped as a ball or pancake.

Recognizing that one category can include several subclasses. Example: Understanding that dogs and cats are both animals.

Awareness that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one's own. Example: A 4-year-old realizing someone can hold a false belief.

Ability to form, store, and retrieve information. Example: A preschooler recalling details of a family trip.

Applying grammar rules too broadly. Example: Saying "Daddy goed away" instead of "Daddy went away."

Restrictive and demanding, yet warm and communicative. Example: Parent enforces rules but explains reasons and shows affection.

High control, low warmth; demands obedience. Example: Parent says "Because I said so" without explanation.

Low control, high warmth; indulgent and nurturing. Example: Parent allows child freedom but provides affection.

Low control, low warmth; uninvolved. Example: Parent ignores child's needs and shows little support.

Reasoning to teach principles behind rules. Example: "Don't hit, it hurts others."

Discipline through punishment or denial of privileges. Example: Spanking or taking away toys.

Ignoring or isolating child as punishment. Example: Parent refuses to speak to child after misbehavior.

Awareness of self, traits, and abilities. Example: Child says, "I'm fast, I can run."

Stage where children seek independence and purpose. Example: Child plans a game; harsh rejection may cause guilt.

Awareness of being male or female. Example: A 2½-year-old knows she is a girl but may think she can grow up to be a daddy.

Cultural expectations for male and female behavior. Example: Boys encouraged to play with trucks, girls with dolls.

Children form mental frameworks about gender roles. Example: A child assumes only girls wear dresses.

Period of rapid growth in height/weight. Example: Girls begin earlier than boys, around age 10-11.

Muscle aches during bone growth. Example: Leg aches are common in middle childhood.

Cognitive skills for planning, attention, flexibility, and problem-solving. Example: A child learns to focus on homework despite distractions.

Nearsightedness; difficulty seeing distant objects. Example: A child needs glasses to read the board at school.

Excess body fat posing health risks. Example: Linked to diabetes and heart disease in children.

Respiratory disorder with wheezing and difficulty breathing. Example: A child uses an inhaler during an asthma attack.

Large muscle activities. Example: Running, biking, climbing.

Small muscle coordination. Example: Writing, drawing, tying shoelaces.

Condition with inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Example: A child struggles to sit still and focus in class.

Disorders affecting reading, math, or writing despite normal intelligence. Example: Dyslexia makes reading difficult even with good instruction.

Piaget's stage (7-12) marked by logical thinking about concrete objects/events. Example: Child understands that pouring water into a taller glass doesn't change its amount.

Understanding that properties remain constant despite changes in form. Example: Clay ball vs. clay pancake—same amount of clay.

Considering multiple aspects of a problem. Example: Judging both height and width of a glass when comparing water amounts.

Recognizing that actions can be undone. Example: Water poured back into the original glass restores equality.

Understanding that categories can include subclasses. Example: Dogs and cats are both animals.

Ability to order items by size or property. Example: Arranging sticks from shortest to longest.

Approach focusing on attention, memory, and problem-solving strategies. Example: A child rehearses spelling words to remember them.

Awareness of one's own thought processes. Example: A child realizes they need to study longer for math than spelling.

Techniques to improve recall (rehearsal, organization, elaboration). Example: Grouping grocery list items by category.

Multifaceted ability involving reasoning, problem-solving, and learning. Example: A child shows strength in spatial reasoning but struggles in verbal tasks.

Period of skill development and repression of sexual impulses. Example: A child focuses on school, friendships, and learning new skills.

Psychosocial stage; mastery builds competence, while failure fosters inferiority. Example: A child feels competent after mastering a difficult school project.

Understanding relationships between self and others; perspective-taking develops. Example: A child recognizes that a friend may have different feelings about the same event.

Stages of recognizing others' viewpoints, from egocentric to mutual understanding. Example: An older child understands that two people can have different perspectives on the same situation.

Children's definition of themselves, shifting from concrete to abstract traits. Example: A child describes themselves as kind, intelligent, and good at sports.

Value or worth attached to oneself; declines in middle childhood due to realistic comparisons. Example: A child feels less confident after comparing their athletic ability with classmates.

Belief that effort cannot change outcomes; linked to poor persistence and achievement. Example: A student stops trying after repeatedly believing they cannot improve their grades.

Warm, restrictive, and supportive style fostering competence and self-esteem. Example: A parent sets clear rules while explaining them and encouraging the child's independence.

Aggressive peer behavior causing harm; linked to emotional problems in victims. Example: A student repeatedly teases and excludes a classmate.

Anxiety about attending school, often tied to separation or social fears. Example: A child becomes extremely anxious and refuses to go to school because they fear being away from their parents.

Transition between childhood and adulthood, bounded by puberty and adult responsibilities. Example: A teenager gradually develops adult responsibilities while going through puberty.

Final psychosexual stage; gratification through sexual relationships. Example: An adolescent develops mature romantic and sexual relationships.

Biological stage of sexual maturity. Example: A teenager experiences physical changes such as growth of body hair and development of reproductive organs.

Hormonal regulation system involving hypothalamus, pituitary, and gonads. Example: The hypothalamus signals the pituitary, which regulates hormones produced by the gonads during puberty.

Organs enabling reproduction. Example: Development of the ovaries and testes during puberty.

Physical signs of sexual maturity such as changes in voice, body hair, and breasts. Example: A boy's voice deepens during puberty.

Rapid increase in height and weight during puberty. Example: A teenager grows several inches in a relatively short period.

Uneven growth of body parts, causing awkwardness. Example: A teenager's hands and feet may grow before the rest of the body catches up.

Historical increase in height and earlier puberty. Example: Average adolescents in some generations reach puberty earlier and are taller than previous generations.

Brain region involved in planning and impulse control. Example: The prefrontal cortex helps an adolescent consider consequences before making a decision.

Eating disorder involving self-starvation and severe restriction of food intake. Example: A person severely restricts food because of an intense fear of gaining weight.

Eating disorder involving binge eating followed by behaviors intended to compensate for the eating. Example: A person repeatedly binges and then purges.

Repeated episodes of overeating without purging behaviors. Example: A person eats an unusually large amount of food and feels unable to control the eating.

Problematic use of alcohol or drugs that impairs health and functioning. Example: A teenager's repeated substance use interferes with school, relationships, and daily responsibilities.

Piaget's stage of abstract, logical, reversible thought. Example: An adolescent uses abstract logic to solve a complex algebra problem.

Considering possibilities beyond immediate reality. Example: An adolescent asks what would happen if gravity suddenly disappeared.

Belief that others constantly scrutinize one's appearance or behavior. Example: A teenager feels embarrassed about a small stain because they believe everyone at school noticed it.

Belief in uniqueness and invulnerability. Example: A teenager believes bad things happen to other people but cannot happen to them.

Skills in language use; females generally excel. Example: A student demonstrates strong vocabulary and reading comprehension skills.

Skills in visualizing and manipulating objects; males generally excel. Example: A student mentally rotates a shape to determine how it would look from another angle.

Progression from obedience and conformity toward abstract moral principles. Example: A person progresses from following rules to avoid punishment to making decisions based on justice.

Emphasis on relationships and responsibility in moral reasoning. Example: A person considers how a decision will affect the needs and relationships of others.

Teacher expectations influencing student achievement. Example: Students may perform better when teachers communicate high expectations for their success.

Belief in one's ability to succeed in tasks or careers. Example: A student with high self-efficacy believes they can master a difficult math course through effort and practice.

Psychosocial stage of adolescence involving the development of a stable sense of identity. Example: An adolescent explores different values and future goals to develop a clear sense of self.

Sense of self and values. Example: A teenager develops a clear understanding of their beliefs, interests, and goals.

Period of exploration before commitment. Example: A student tries different courses and career options before choosing a career path.

Lack of commitments or exploration. Example: A teenager has not explored future goals and has made no decisions about their values.

Commitments made without exploration. Example: A teenager chooses a career because their parents expect it without considering other options.

Exploration completed and commitments made. Example: After exploring several careers, a teenager commits to becoming a teacher.

Sense of belonging to an ethnic group. Example: An adolescent identifies with their family's cultural traditions and history.

Early stage in which little thought is given to ethnic or cultural identity. Example: A teenager follows family traditions without considering what they mean personally.

Active exploration of cultural identity. Example: An adolescent researches their family's history and learns more about their cultural traditions.

Clear, confident acceptance of ethnic identity. Example: An adolescent understands and feels comfortable with their cultural background.

Adolescents' differentiated view of themselves. Example: A teenager describes themselves as hardworking at school but quiet in large social groups.

Value attached to self; fluctuates in adolescence. Example: A teenager's self-esteem increases after receiving positive feedback on a school project.

Illegal or antisocial behavior in adolescence. Example: A teenager repeatedly vandalizes property or steals from stores.

Transitional stage between adolescence and adulthood. Example: A young adult explores education, careers, relationships, and independence before settling into long-term commitments.