NACC - M8 - Terms

The systematic study of human behaviour in social context. Example: Understanding why unemployment rises by examining economic policies, not just individual effort.

The ability to connect personal troubles to broader social forces. Example: Realizing that a factory worker's job loss is linked to global outsourcing, not personal failure.

Stable patterns of social relations that shape behaviour. Example: Family expectations, school rules, and workplace hierarchies.

Small-scale, face-to-face interactions. Example: Families, friendships, and small peer groups.

Social relations in organizations where people may not interact personally. Example: Schools, workplaces, and government departments.

Large-scale social patterns beyond individual relationships. Example: Patriarchy, class systems, and national institutions.

Worldwide social relations and systems. Example: International trade, global migration, and the internet.

A historical shift starting around 1550 that emphasized evidence-based conclusions. Example: Using data to understand society rather than relying on tradition or speculation.

A movement around 1770 showing that societies can be changed by human action. Example: The French and American Revolutions demonstrating that people can reshape government.

A period around 1780 of rapid industrialization that created new social problems. Example: Urban poverty, factory labour, and overcrowded cities were issues that early sociologists studied.

A set of ideas explaining how observable facts are related. Example: A theory might explain why crime rates rise in certain neighbourhoods.

Systematic observation used to test theories. Example: Conducting surveys to see whether social media use affects mental health.

Beliefs about what is good, desirable, or important. Example: A researcher's belief in equality may influence the questions they ask.

A theoretical perspective emphasizing social stability and shared values. Example: Schools are seen as institutions that maintain social order by teaching norms.

A perspective focusing on inequality and power struggles. Example: Examining how wealth inequality benefits some groups at the expense of others.

A perspective emphasizing face-to-face interaction and the meanings people create. Example: How people interpret gestures, language, or social roles.

A perspective analyzing gender inequality and advocating social change. Example: Studying how workplace policies disadvantage women.

Shared ideas, practices, and objects that help people adapt.

Creating symbols and ideas, such as language.

Establishing norms and values for social life.

Making tools and material culture.

Accepted ways of doing things.

Mild norms; violations cause little reaction.

Strong norms; violations bring serious consequences.

Deeply forbidden acts causing revulsion.

Ideas about what is good, desirable, or important.

Physical objects created by humans. Example: Tools, technology, and physical artifacts.

Elite cultural forms. Example: Opera and fine art.

Widely shared entertainment. Example: Television and movies.

Culture of the powerful that shapes norms.

Culture of less powerful groups that resists dominance.

The idea that language shapes thought and perception.

Judging another culture by your own standards.

The basic cultural elements that help humans adapt: abstraction, cooperation, and production.

Tools, technology, and physical artifacts created by humans.

A culture where sexual violence is normalized.

Coexistence of diverse cultural groups.

The process of learning culture through interaction. Example: Children learn manners by watching parents.

Expected behaviour for someone in a particular social position. Example: A teacher is expected to instruct and guide students.

We form our self-image based on how we think others see us. Example: A child who is praised often begins to see themselves as capable.

A person's ideas and feelings about who they are. Example: Thinking "I am a shy person."

The spontaneous, creative, impulsive part of the self. Example: Deciding on a whim to dance in the kitchen.

The socialized, rule-following part of the self. Example: Stopping yourself from shouting in a library.

Internalized cultural expectations of society. Example: Knowing that society expects you to line up politely.

People who play a major role in early development. Example: Parents, grandparents, or primary caregivers.

Early childhood learning, mainly from family. Example: Learning to speak your first language at home.

Learning that occurs outside the family. Example: Learning teamwork at school.

Groups or institutions that shape behaviour and identity. Example: Family, school, peers, and media.

A group of people of similar age and status. Example: Friends in high school influencing clothing choices.

Communication platforms that reach large audiences. Example: TikTok shaping trends and attitudes.

Learning cultural expectations for masculinity and femininity. Example: Boys being encouraged to be assertive; girls being encouraged to be nurturing.

Learning new norms after major life changes. Example: New military recruits learning discipline and routines.

People communicating, acting, and reacting to one another. Example: Two coworkers discussing a project.

A recognized social position. Example: "Teacher" or "parent."

Expected behaviour attached to a status. Example: A teacher prepares lessons and evaluates students.

Accepted ways of doing things. Example: Raising your hand before speaking in class.

All the statuses a person holds. Example: Mother, employee, student.

All the roles attached to a single status. Example: A teacher instructs, disciplines, and mentors.

Contradictory demands from different statuses. Example: A parent who must work late while a child is sick.

Contradictory demands within one status. Example: A teacher expected to grade quickly AND give detailed feedback.

Controlling emotions to fit cultural expectations. Example: Staying calm during an argument.

Managing emotions as part of paid work. Example: A flight attendant smiling at rude passengers.

Goffman's idea that social life is like a stage with performances. Example: A server acting cheerful while taking orders.

Public performance of a role. Example: A doctor speaking confidently to patients.

Private area where people relax their performance. Example: A doctor joking with colleagues in the staff room.

Trying to control how others see you. Example: Dressing professionally for a job interview.

Acting as though a role is not your true identity. Example: "I'm only working here until school starts again."

Messages sent without words. Example: Eye contact, gestures, and posture.

Visual indicators of social position. Example: A police uniform signals authority.

Behaviour that violates a norm and provokes a negative reaction. Example: Wearing pajamas to a job interview.

Deviance that violates a law. Example: Theft or assault.

Rules for behaviour in a society. Example: Greeting someone politely.

Penalties or rewards for behaviour. Example: A fine for speeding is a formal sanction; a dirty look for cutting in line is an informal sanction.

Legal penalties imposed by the state. Example: Jail time for robbery.

Mild social reactions. Example: Gossip or ridicule.

A negative label that discredits a person. Example: Treating someone as "dangerous" because of visible tattoos.

Illegal acts with no complaining victim. Example: Illegal gambling or drug use.

A survey where people disclose their own criminal behaviour. Example: Students reporting whether they've shoplifted.

A survey asking people if they've been victims of crime. Example: Reporting a break-in even if it wasn't reported to police.

Deviance results from how others respond to behaviour. Example: A teen labelled "troublemaker" becomes more deviant over time.

People learn deviance from those they interact with. Example: Joining a peer group that shoplifts.

Visible crimes like robbery or assault. Example: Breaking into a car.

Non-violent, financially motivated crime by professionals. Example: Embezzlement.

Crime results when people lack legitimate means to achieve cultural goals. Example: Stealing to obtain wealth when legal opportunities are blocked.

A system of structured inequality. Example: Wealthy families owning most national assets.

Total assets minus debt. Example: A home, investments, and savings.

Money earned in a given period. Example: A yearly salary of \$60,000.

Money, property, and financial assets. Example: Owning rental properties.

Education and skills that increase earning power. Example: A nursing degree leading to higher wages.

Networks and connections that provide opportunities. Example: Getting a job through a family friend.

Social skills, manners, and cultural knowledge that influence success. Example: Knowing how to speak confidently in interviews.

Lacking basic necessities like food and shelter. Example: A family unable to afford heat in winter.

Having less than the average standard of living. Example: A child unable to participate in school trips due to cost.

A threshold used to determine who is considered poor. Example: Families earning below 50% of median income.

Unequal distribution of assets. Example: The top 20% owning over two-thirds of Canadian wealth.

Unequal distribution of earnings. Example: The top quintile earning 44% of national income.

A socially constructed category based on perceived physical differences. Example: Being labelled "Black" or "White" based on appearance.

A category based on shared cultural traits. Example: Italian, Punjabi, or Cree.

The process by which society creates categories and meanings. Example: The idea of "race" changing across history.

A negative attitude toward a group. Example: Believing immigrants are "lazy" without evidence.

Unequal treatment based on group membership. Example: Rejecting job applicants with non-English names.

An oversimplified belief about a group. Example: Assuming all Asians are good at math.

A disadvantaged group blamed for others' problems. Example: Jews being blamed for Germany's economic crisis in the 1930s.

The process of assigning racial meaning to a group. Example: Irish immigrants once being labelled "Black."

A Canadian term for non-white, non-Indigenous groups. Example: South Asian, Chinese, and Black Canadians.

Domination of one group by another through force. Example: European settlement displacing Indigenous peoples.

Porter's term for Canada's ethnically stratified society in the mid-1900s. Example: WASPs at the top and later immigrants lower in the hierarchy.

How individuals see themselves culturally. Example: A person identifying as Métis or Jamaican-Canadian.

Biological classification based on chromosomes and reproductive anatomy. Explanation: Sex depends fundamentally on one's genetic makeup.

People whose biological characteristics do not fit conventional male/female categories.

Socially constructed traits associated with masculinity and femininity.

One's internal sense of belonging to a gender.

Behaviours expected of males or females in a society.

People whose gender identity does not match their assigned sex at birth.

The belief that gender differences are natural, universal, and rooted in biology.

The view that gender is created through social processes, not biology.

The process by which individuals learn gender norms from family, school, peers, and media.

A set of beliefs about appropriate roles for men and women.

A cohabiting man and woman with at least one child. Example: A married couple raising two children.

Male breadwinner + female homemaker. Example: 1950s suburban households.

Marriages per 1,000 people per year. Example: A rate of 10 means 10 marriages per 1,000 people.

Divorces per 1,000 people per year.

Average number of children a woman would have in her lifetime. Example: Canada's TFR fell below replacement level after the 1970s.

One person having multiple spouses. Example: A man with four wives in a fundamentalist Mormon group.

Nuclear family plus additional generations. Example: Parents, children, and grandparents living together.

Male dominance supported by norms and institutions. Example: Laws that once prevented women from owning property.

Children split time between two households after divorce. Example: Joint custody arrangements.

Partners share power and responsibilities equally. Example: Both spouses work and share childcare.

Things set apart as holy. Example: A cross in Christianity.

Everyday, ordinary things. Example: A kitchen table.

Object symbolizing the sacred. Example: A religious statue or symbol.

Formal practice connecting people to the sacred. Example: Prayer, communion, or fasting.

Shared emotional energy during group rituals. Example: Fans uniting during the Stanley Cup finals.

A large, bureaucratic religious organization integrated into society. Example: The Catholic Church.

A smaller, less formal group that breaks away from a church. Example: Early Protestant groups.

Turning a charismatic leader's message into a stable institution. Example: Christianity after Jesus's death.

Decline in the influence of religion over social life. Example: Schools teaching science instead of religious doctrine.

Renewed interest in religion. Example: Growth of evangelical churches.

Schooling available to the entire population. Example: Canada's compulsory K–12 system.

Years or level of schooling completed. Example: A bachelor's degree.

What students actually learn. Example: Literacy or math test scores.

High-status cultural knowledge and skills. Example: Parents who can help with essays or know university expectations.

Sorting students into different academic paths. Example: Academic vs. applied courses.

Intended functions of schooling. Example: Teaching reading and math.

Unintended functions of schooling. Example: Schools as marriage markets.

Massive Open Online Courses delivered online. Example: A free online course from U of T.

Universities adopting business practices. Example: Corporate sponsorship of research labs.

Unequal access to technology. Example: Low-income students lacking home internet.

Average age at death in a population. Example: Life expectancy in Canada in 1831 was approximately 40 years.

Government programs ensuring clean water, sanitation, and vaccinations.

Clinics, hospitals, and medical services that diagnose and treat illness.

Locating hazardous industries near marginalized communities. Example: Hazardous waste sites may be located near Indigenous communities.

Behaviours such as smoking, diet, and inactivity that influence health outcomes.

Lack of social support, linked to depression and premature death.

How human activity shapes health risks, such as pollution, toxins, and unsafe water.

Chronic illnesses such as cancer and heart disease that increase with age.

How overlapping disadvantages, such as race, class, and gender, compound health risks.

Deaths that occur due to preventable social conditions. Example: Poverty or unsafe water.

Technologies that communicate to large audiences, such as TV, radio, and the Internet.

Transmission of messages from few senders to many receivers.

A nation unified through shared media experiences.

Ownership of media by a small number of corporations.

Political ads that attack opponents; often effective.

Space where citizens debate issues; media shape this space.

McLuhan's idea that media shrink the world into one community.

Online platforms allow users to create content. Example: YouTube and TikTok.

Set of beliefs promoted by media that support existing power structures.

Using personal data to tailor political messages to individuals.

Transformation of social structures and cultural patterns.

Belief that technology is the main driver of social change.

Inevitable failure in complex technological systems.

A society where technology creates widespread but unequal risks.

Increase in Earth's average temperature due to greenhouse gases.

Environmental issues become "problems" only when society defines them as such.

Unequal distribution of environmental risks across social groups.

Hazardous industries disproportionately located near marginalized communities.

Long cycles of technological innovation occurring every 40–60 years.

Large-scale, expensive, corporate- or military-driven research systems.

Establishing political and economic control over Indigenous lands and peoples.

Process where a minority group adopts the dominant culture and loses its own identity.

Canadian law that controlled Indigenous identity, land, and governance.

Government-funded schools aimed at assimilating Indigenous children by removing them from their culture.

A person recognized under the Indian Act with specific legal rights.

A person of Indigenous ancestry not recognized under the Indian Act.

Indigenous peoples in Canada excluding Métis and Inuit.

People of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry with a distinct culture.

Indigenous peoples of the Arctic regions of Canada.

Process of repairing relationships between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian government.