NACC - M11 - Terms

The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Example: Studying how memory affects learning.

Any observable action or response. Example: Smiling, talking, or running.

Internal experiences such as thoughts, feelings, and perceptions. Example: Remembering a birthday.

Carefully evaluating information, evidence, and arguments before reaching conclusions. Example: Questioning whether a social media claim is supported by research.

An early school of psychology that studied the structure of conscious experience. Example: Analyzing sensations and feelings through introspection.

A school of psychology that focused on how mental processes help people adapt to their environment. Example: Studying how memory helps survival.

A school of psychology that studies observable behaviour and the laws of learning. Example: Examining how rewards influence behaviour.

A school of psychology emphasizing that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Example: Recognizing a face rather than separate features.

Freud's theory emphasizing unconscious motives and conflicts. Example: Exploring childhood experiences that influence adult behaviour.

A model explaining behaviour through biological, psychological, and social influences. Example: Understanding depression through genetics, thoughts, and environment.

Focuses on how the brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics influence behaviour. Example: Studying how brain injury affects memory.

Focuses on thinking, memory, perception, and problem solving. Example: Studying how people process information.

Focuses on personal growth, free will, and self-actualization. Example: Helping individuals reach their full potential.

Examines how culture, social groups, and society influence behaviour. Example: Studying cultural differences in communication.

A testable prediction about behaviour or mental processes. Example: Students who sleep more will score higher on tests.

An in-depth investigation of one individual or group. Example: Studying a person with a rare brain injury.

Collecting information by asking people questions. Example: A questionnaire about stress levels.

Observing behaviour in its natural environment. Example: Watching children interact on a playground.

A research method used to determine cause-and-effect relationships. Example: Testing whether sleep affects memory performance.

The factor manipulated by the researcher. Example: Amount of sleep participants receive.

The outcome measured by the researcher. Example: Test scores after different amounts of sleep.

Assigning participants to groups by chance. Example: Randomly placing students into experimental or control groups.

Changes caused by participants' expectations rather than the treatment itself. Example: Feeling better after taking a sugar pill believed to be medicine.

A study in which neither participants nor researchers know who receives the treatment. Example: Drug testing where neither side knows who receives the medication.

A relationship between two variables. Example: As study time increases, grades increase.

Guidelines that protect participants in research. Example: Obtaining informed consent before conducting a study.

A specialized cell that transmits information throughout the nervous system. Example: Brain cells sending messages to control movement.

Branches of a neuron that receive incoming signals. Example: Receiving messages from nearby neurons.

The part of a neuron that carries signals away from the cell body. Example: Sending a neural impulse to another neuron.

A fatty covering around axons that speeds neural transmission. Example: Helping messages travel faster through the nervous system.

An electrical signal traveling along a neuron. Example: A pain signal traveling to the brain.

The neuron's inactive state before firing. Example: Approximately -70 millivolts inside the neuron.

The electrical charge created when a neuron fires. Example: A neuron transmitting information.

A neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all. Example: Once threshold is reached, the neuron fires fully.

The tiny gap between neurons where communication occurs. Example: Neurotransmitters crossing from one neuron to another.

Chemical messengers that carry signals across synapses. Example: Dopamine and serotonin.

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, memory, and learning. Example: Helps activate skeletal muscles.

A neurotransmitter involved in movement, reward, and pleasure. Example: Low levels are associated with Parkinson's disease.

A neurotransmitter involved in mood, sleep, and appetite. Example: Low levels are associated with depression.

Natural pain-reducing neurotransmitters. Example: Released during exercise.

The brain and spinal cord. Example: Processes information and controls responses.

All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. Example: Carries information between the CNS and body.

Controls voluntary movements. Example: Walking and writing.

Controls involuntary bodily functions. Example: Heart rate and digestion.

Activates the body's fight-or-flight response. Example: Increased heart rate during stress.

Returns the body to a resting state. Example: Slowing heart rate after danger passes.

Measures electrical activity in the brain. Example: Studying sleep patterns.

Uses X-rays to create images of brain structures. Example: Detecting brain injuries.

Measures brain activity using radioactive glucose. Example: Identifying active brain regions.

Uses magnetic fields to create detailed brain images. Example: Examining brain structures.

Measures brain activity while tasks are performed. Example: Observing brain regions involved in memory.

Includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. Example: Controls survival functions like breathing.

Controls balance and coordination. Example: Maintaining balance while riding a bicycle.

The brain's sensory relay station. Example: Directing sensory information to the cortex.

Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and hormones. Example: Triggering hunger when energy is low.

Involved in memory formation. Example: Creating new long-term memories.

Involved in emotions, especially fear and aggression. Example: Reacting to a threatening situation.

The outer layer of the cerebrum responsible for higher thinking. Example: Decision-making and language.

A system of glands that releases hormones into the bloodstream. Example: Regulating growth and stress responses.

The "master gland" that controls other endocrine glands. Example: Regulating growth hormone release.

The transmission of traits from parents to offspring. Example: Eye colour inheritance.

Segments of DNA that influence traits. Example: Genes affecting height.

Structures containing DNA and genes. Example: Humans normally have 23 pairs.

The study of how environment affects gene expression. Example: Stress influencing whether certain genes are activated.

The process of detecting sensory information from the environment. Example: Seeing a bright light.

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information. Example: Recognizing a friend's face.

The minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time. Example: Seeing a candle flame from far away.

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli. Example: Noticing a slight increase in volume.

The principle that the just noticeable difference depends on the intensity of the original stimulus. Example: Detecting weight differences more easily with lighter objects.

The theory that detection depends on both stimulus strength and psychological factors. Example: Expecting an important phone call makes you more likely to notice your phone vibrating.

Reduced sensitivity to a constant stimulus. Example: No longer noticing a strong perfume after several minutes.

The range of light wavelengths humans can see. Example: Colours from red to violet.

The transparent outer covering of the eye. Example: Helps focus incoming light.

The coloured part of the eye that controls pupil size. Example: Expands or contracts depending on light levels.

The opening in the centre of the iris. Example: Allows light to enter the eye.

The light-sensitive surface at the back of the eye. Example: Contains rods and cones.

Receptors responsible for black-and-white vision and night vision. Example: Seeing in dim light.

Receptors responsible for colour vision and detail. Example: Reading a book in daylight.

The area of the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye. Example: A small area with no receptors.

The process by which the lens changes shape to focus images. Example: Switching focus from a phone screen to a distant object.

Theory that colour vision results from three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue. Example: Combining cone activity to perceive colours.

Theory that colour vision involves opposing colour pairs. Example: Red-green and blue-yellow systems.

Difficulty distinguishing certain colours. Example: Red-green colour blindness.

The tendency to distinguish an object from its background. Example: Seeing either a vase or two faces.

The tendency to fill in missing parts of an image. Example: Seeing a complete circle even when parts are missing.

Perception guided by expectations and prior knowledge. Example: Reading messy handwriting based on context.

Perception built from sensory details. Example: Identifying an unfamiliar object by examining its features.

The ability to perceive distance. Example: Judging how far away a ball is.

Perceiving objects as stable despite changes in viewing conditions. Example: A door appears rectangular even when partly open.

The number of sound wave cycles per second. Example: Determines pitch.

The perceived highness or lowness of a sound. Example: A whistle has a higher pitch than a drum.

A unit used to measure sound intensity. Example: A whisper is much lower in decibels than a rock concert.

A fluid-filled structure in the inner ear that contains the organ of Corti. Example: Converts sound vibrations into neural signals.

Theory that pitch depends on where the basilar membrane vibrates. Example: Different locations respond to different frequencies.

Theory that pitch depends on the rate of nerve impulses. Example: Useful for explaining lower-pitched sounds.

The sense of smell. Example: Detecting the scent of perfume.

The sense of taste. Example: Tasting sweetness in chocolate.

Awareness of body position and movement. Example: Touching your nose with your eyes closed.

The sense of balance and body orientation. Example: Maintaining balance while riding a bicycle.

The claimed ability to perceive information without sensory input. Example: Telepathy and precognition claims.

Awareness of ourselves and our environment. Example: Being aware of your thoughts, feelings, and surroundings.

Focusing awareness on one stimulus while ignoring others. Example: Listening to a friend in a noisy room.

The body's internal biological clock that regulates sleep and wakefulness. Example: Feeling sleepy at night and alert during the day.

Rapid Eye Movement sleep associated with vivid dreaming. Example: Most memorable dreams occur during REM sleep.

Non-Rapid Eye Movement sleep consisting of stages 1-4. Example: Deep restorative sleep occurs during NREM stages.

The condition resulting from insufficient sleep. Example: Feeling tired and having difficulty concentrating.

A sequence of images, thoughts, and emotions experienced during sleep. Example: Dreaming about taking a test.

Persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep. Example: Lying awake for hours despite feeling tired.

A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks during waking hours. Example: Falling asleep unexpectedly during a conversation.

A disorder involving repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep. Example: Loud snoring followed by pauses in breathing.

Episodes of intense fear and physiological arousal during sleep. Example: Screaming during sleep without remembering it later.

Walking or performing activities while asleep. Example: Walking around the house without waking up.

A state of heightened concentration and suggestibility. Example: Using hypnosis to help reduce chronic pain.

A technique that focuses attention to increase awareness and relaxation. Example: Mindfulness breathing exercises.

A meditation technique involving the repetition of a mantra. Example: Repeating a word or sound silently.

A relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from experience. Example: Learning to ride a bicycle through practice.

Learning through associations between stimuli. Example: Pavlov's dogs salivating to the sound of a bell.

A stimulus that naturally produces a response. Example: Food causing salivation.

A natural, unlearned reaction to a stimulus. Example: Salivating when food is presented.

A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned response. Example: A bell after conditioning.

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus. Example: Salivating when hearing a bell.

The initial stage of learning an association. Example: Pairing a bell with food repeatedly.

The weakening of a conditioned response when reinforcement stops. Example: Bell rings without food until salivation decreases.

The reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period. Example: A dog salivates again when hearing the bell after time passes.

Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus. Example: A dog salivates to similar sounding bells.

Learning to respond differently to similar stimuli. Example: Responding only to one specific bell.

Learning through consequences such as rewards and punishments. Example: Studying harder after receiving praise.

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour. Example: Receiving praise for good work.

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behaviour. Example: Giving a student a reward for good grades.

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behaviour. Example: Seatbelt alarm stops when the seatbelt is fastened.

A consequence that decreases behaviour. Example: Losing privileges for breaking rules.

Adding an unpleasant consequence to decrease behaviour. Example: Receiving detention for misbehaviour.

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behaviour. Example: Losing phone privileges after breaking curfew.

A reinforcer that satisfies a biological need. Example: Food or water.

A learned reinforcer associated with primary reinforcers. Example: Money.

Learning by watching others. Example: Learning a dance by watching a friend.

Demonstrating a behaviour for others to imitate. Example: A teacher showing students how to solve a problem.

Bandura's theory that learning occurs through observation and imitation. Example: Children copying behaviours seen in adults.

The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Example: Remembering a friend's birthday.

The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored. Example: Repeating a phone number to remember it.

The retention of information over time. Example: Keeping childhood memories for years.

The process of accessing stored information. Example: Recalling an answer during a test.

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information. Example: Seeing a flash of light after it disappears.

Visual sensory memory lasting a fraction of a second. Example: Briefly seeing an image after it is gone.

Auditory sensory memory lasting several seconds. Example: Repeating a question after someone speaks.

Memory that holds a limited amount of information for a short period. Example: Remembering a phone number long enough to dial it.

The active processing of information held in short-term memory. Example: Solving a math problem in your head.

Grouping information into meaningful units to improve memory. Example: Remembering 123456789 as 123-456-789.

Repeating information to maintain it in memory. Example: Repeating vocabulary words before a test.

A relatively permanent and unlimited memory store. Example: Remembering your childhood home.

Memory for facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled. Example: Remembering the capital of Canada.

Memory for personal experiences and events. Example: Remembering your first day of school.

Memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge. Example: Knowing that Ottawa is Canada's capital.

Memory that affects behaviour without conscious awareness. Example: Knowing how to ride a bicycle.

Memory for skills and actions. Example: Typing on a keyboard.

Remembering to perform actions in the future. Example: Remembering to attend an appointment tomorrow.

Remembering past events and information. Example: Recalling what you ate yesterday.

A mental framework used to organize information. Example: Having a mental image of what a classroom looks like.

The inability to retrieve information that was previously stored. Example: Forgetting a person's name.

New information interferes with old information. Example: Forgetting your old password after learning a new one.

Old information interferes with learning new information. Example: Accidentally using your old phone number.

Failure to access stored information. Example: The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.

Memory loss caused by injury, illness, or trauma. Example: Inability to remember past events after a brain injury.

A brain structure crucial for forming new memories. Example: Transferring information into long-term memory.

A brain region involved in working memory and decision-making. Example: Holding information while solving a problem.

A mental category used to group similar objects, events, or ideas. Example: Knowing that dogs of different breeds are all dogs.

The most typical example of a concept. Example: A robin may be a prototype for the concept "bird."

The process of finding solutions to difficult situations. Example: Figuring out how to fix a broken computer.

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution if followed correctly. Example: Following a recipe exactly.

A mental shortcut used to solve problems quickly. Example: Choosing the most familiar option.

A heuristic that reduces differences between the current situation and a goal. Example: Breaking a large project into smaller tasks.

A sudden realization of a solution. Example: Suddenly understanding how to solve a puzzle.

The inability to see new uses for familiar objects. Example: Seeing a hammer only as a tool for nails.

Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype. Example: Assuming a quiet person is a librarian.

Judging probability based on how easily examples come to mind. Example: Thinking plane crashes are common after hearing news reports.

Relying heavily on an initial piece of information when making decisions. Example: Using the first price seen as a reference point.

Decisions influenced by how information is presented. Example: Choosing a treatment because it has a 90% survival rate instead of a 10% death rate.

A system of symbols and rules used to communicate. Example: English, French, Punjabi.

The meanings of words and sentences. Example: Understanding what the word "dog" means.

The rules governing sentence structure. Example: Knowing that "The dog ran" is correct English.

The social rules of language use. Example: Understanding sarcasm or tone of voice.

The idea that language influences thought. Example: Different languages may shape how people perceive the world.

Chomsky's proposed inborn ability to learn language. Example: Children's natural ability to learn grammar.

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt. Example: Applying knowledge to new situations.

Spearman's general intelligence factor underlying mental abilities. Example: A general ability that contributes to performance on many tasks.

Gardner's theory that intelligence consists of several distinct abilities. Example: Musical, spatial, linguistic, and interpersonal intelligence.

Sternberg's theory of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence. Example: Solving academic problems, creating ideas, and handling real-life situations.

A score intended to measure intellectual ability. Example: IQ tests such as the Stanford-Binet.

The ability to understand and manage emotions. Example: Recognizing and responding appropriately to others' feelings.

The ability to produce novel and useful ideas. Example: Inventing a new solution to a problem.

Generating many possible solutions to a problem. Example: Brainstorming ideas.

Narrowing options to find the single best solution. Example: Solving a multiple-choice question.

The pattern of growth and change that occurs throughout life. Example: Learning to walk, talk, and think more complexly.

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behaviour. Example: A child becoming physically ready to walk.

Development that occurs before birth. Example: Growth of the embryo and fetus.

The fertilized egg formed at conception. Example: The first stage of prenatal development.

The developing organism from about 2 to 8 weeks after conception. Example: Major organs begin forming during this stage.

The developing organism from 9 weeks until birth. Example: Rapid growth and development occur.

Any substance or condition that can harm prenatal development. Example: Alcohol or certain drugs during pregnancy.

An emotional bond between a child and caregiver. Example: A baby seeking comfort from a parent.

A strong, healthy attachment characterized by trust and comfort. Example: A child explores confidently when a caregiver is nearby.

Changes in thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving abilities. Example: Learning mathematical concepts.

A mental framework used to organize knowledge. Example: Understanding what a classroom is like.

Interpreting new information using existing schemas. Example: Calling a zebra a horse.

Modifying schemas to fit new information. Example: Learning that a zebra is different from a horse.

Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight. Example: Looking for a hidden toy.

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance. Example: Knowing water volume stays the same in different-shaped containers.

Piaget's stage involving abstract and logical thinking. Example: Solving hypothetical problems.

Development of social relationships and identity. Example: Building friendships and self-esteem.

A person's sense of self. Example: Understanding personal values and goals.

The developmental period between childhood and adulthood. Example: Experiencing puberty and identity formation.

The biological process leading to sexual maturity. Example: Physical changes during the teenage years.

The development of moral reasoning and ethical behaviour. Example: Understanding fairness and justice.

The transition period between adolescence and full adulthood. Example: Exploring careers and relationships.

The processes that energize, direct, and sustain behaviour. Example: Studying hard to achieve a good grade.

A condition of arousal or deprivation that drives behaviour. Example: Hunger resulting from lack of food.

An aroused state resulting from a need. Example: Hunger motivating someone to eat.

An external object, person, or situation that motivates behaviour. Example: Working harder to earn a reward.

An inherited pattern of behaviour. Example: Birds migrating seasonally.

Excessive body fat that may impair health. Example: A BMI above recommended healthy levels.

An eating disorder involving severe food restriction and distorted body image. Example: Refusing food despite being underweight.

An eating disorder involving binge eating followed by compensatory behaviours. Example: Binge eating followed by purging.

An eating disorder characterized by repeated episodes of excessive eating without purging. Example: Consuming unusually large amounts of food in one sitting.

Motivation related to sexual behaviour and reproduction. Example: Attraction to another person.

The sequence of physiological changes during sexual activity. Example: Excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Sexual attraction primarily to individuals of the opposite sex. Example: A man attracted to women.

Sexual attraction primarily to individuals of the same sex. Example: A woman attracted to women.

The desire to meet goals, master skills, and succeed. Example: Practicing daily to improve academic performance.

Motivation that comes from internal satisfaction. Example: Reading because you enjoy learning.

Motivation driven by external rewards or consequences. Example: Studying for a prize or good grade.

A combination of physiological arousal, cognition, and behaviour. Example: Feeling happiness after achieving a goal.

The scientific study of well-being, happiness, and human strengths. Example: Research on optimism and life satisfaction.

The ability to understand and manage emotions. Example: Recognizing and responding appropriately to others' feelings.

The idea that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences. Example: Smiling may increase feelings of happiness.

The theory that physiological arousal occurs before emotional experience. Example: You feel afraid because your heart is racing.

The theory that physiological arousal and emotion occur simultaneously. Example: Feeling fear and experiencing a racing heart at the same time.

The theory that emotions depend on how individuals interpret situations. Example: Interpreting a situation as threatening leads to fear.

A state of positive well-being and life satisfaction. Example: Feeling content with one's life and relationships.

The physical and psychological response of the body to demands or challenges. Example: Feeling anxious before an important exam.

Any event or demand that causes stress. Example: A job interview or financial problem.

Minor irritating events that occur regularly. Example: Traffic jams or losing your keys.

A major event requiring adjustment. Example: Marriage, divorce, or moving to a new city.

Stress caused by competing motives or goals. Example: Choosing between two desirable options.

Choosing between two attractive options. Example: Deciding between two vacation destinations.

Choosing between two undesirable options. Example: Doing a difficult assignment or receiving a failing grade.

One goal has both positive and negative aspects. Example: Wanting a promotion that requires relocating.

Selye's model describing the body's response to stress. Example: Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion stages.

The initial fight-or-flight response to stress. Example: Increased heart rate during danger.

The body adapts and continues functioning under stress. Example: Coping with a long-term workload.

Resources become depleted after prolonged stress. Example: Burnout after chronic stress.

The body's automatic reaction to perceived threats. Example: Adrenaline preparing the body for action.

The body's defence against disease. Example: Fighting viruses and bacteria.

A stress disorder occurring shortly after a traumatic event. Example: Distress following a serious accident.

A long-lasting stress disorder that follows trauma. Example: Flashbacks after a combat experience.

Stress resulting from exposure to another person's trauma. Example: Emergency workers helping trauma victims.

A personality characteristic involving commitment, control, and challenge. Example: Viewing obstacles as opportunities to grow.

Beliefs about the extent of personal control over events. Example: Believing success comes from personal effort.

Using humour to cope with stress. Example: Finding something funny during a stressful situation.

Assistance and encouragement from others. Example: Talking to friends during difficult times.

The study of how behaviour and psychological factors influence health. Example: Studying how stress affects heart disease.

A model explaining health through biological, psychological, and social influences. Example: Understanding illness through genetics, behaviour, and environment.

The study of interactions between psychological factors, the nervous system, and the immune system. Example: Research on how stress affects immunity.

The unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that characterize an individual. Example: Being outgoing, shy, optimistic, or cautious.

A theory emphasizing unconscious motives and internal conflicts. Example: Freud's theory of personality.

Thoughts, memories, and desires outside conscious awareness. Example: Repressed childhood memories.

The part of personality driven by pleasure and immediate gratification. Example: Wanting dessert immediately.

The rational part of personality that deals with reality. Example: Deciding to wait until after dinner for dessert.

The moral component of personality. Example: Feeling guilty after doing something wrong.

Unconscious strategies used to reduce anxiety. Example: Denial, repression, projection.

Blocking unpleasant thoughts from conscious awareness. Example: Forgetting a traumatic experience.

Attributing one's own unacceptable feelings to others. Example: Accusing someone else of being angry when you are angry.

Jung's concept of shared ancestral memories and ideas. Example: Universal myths and symbols.

Adler's concept of feeling inadequate or inferior. Example: Feeling incapable compared to peers.

A relatively stable characteristic that influences behaviour. Example: Friendliness or honesty.

A tendency to be quiet, reserved, and inwardly focused. Example: Preferring small groups over large parties.

A tendency to be outgoing and sociable. Example: Enjoying social gatherings.

Five broad dimensions of personality: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Example: The OCEAN model.

A theory emphasizing learning, cognition, and environmental influences. Example: Bandura's work on observation and modelling.

The interaction among behaviour, personal factors, and environment. Example: Behaviour both influences and is influenced by surroundings.

A theory emphasizing free will, personal growth, and self-fulfillment. Example: Maslow and Rogers.

The realization of one's full potential. Example: Pursuing personal goals and growth.

The beliefs and perceptions individuals have about themselves. Example: Seeing yourself as hardworking and kind.

Acceptance and support regardless of behaviour. Example: Parents showing love even when a child makes mistakes.

The view that culture and social experiences influence personality. Example: Cultural values shaping behaviour.

Adapting to a new culture. Example: Immigrants learning customs of a new country.

A structured test with fixed responses. Example: MMPI.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. Example: A commonly used clinical personality assessment.

A personality test using ambiguous stimuli. Example: Rorschach Inkblot Test.

A projective test using inkblots. Example: Participants describe what they see in an inkblot.

A projective test using pictures to create stories. Example: Explaining what is happening in a picture.

The scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. Example: Studying why people conform to group pressure.

A learned tendency to evaluate people, objects, or ideas positively or negatively. Example: Liking or disliking a political candidate.

The process of changing attitudes or behaviours through communication. Example: Advertising encouraging consumers to buy products.

Discomfort caused by conflicting attitudes and behaviours. Example: Knowing smoking is harmful but continuing to smoke.

A negative attitude toward members of a group. Example: Judging someone unfairly because of their ethnicity.

Unjustified behaviour toward individuals based on group membership. Example: Refusing to hire someone because of their race.

A generalized belief about members of a group. Example: Assuming all teenagers are irresponsible.

The theory that people derive part of their identity from the groups to which they belong. Example: Strong identification with a sports team.

The theory that interaction between groups can reduce prejudice under appropriate conditions. Example: Students from different backgrounds working together.

An important factor influencing attraction. Example: People often form first impressions based on appearance.