Midterm 1

Lemurs + Lorises (Strepsirhini), Tarsiers (Strepsirhini), New World Monkeys (Haplorhini), Old World Monkeys (Haplorhini), Apes (Haplorhini)

Petrosal Bulla (bony formation that protects the middle ear

Male-Male lead in party association, 5m index, and grooming index (Machanda 2013), male-female are slightly higher than female-female but nowhere close to male-male

Estrous is when females are sexually active, Anestrous is a period of inactivity when the reproductive cycle stops
Male-female relationships have higher association index when females are estrous

Active mostly during the day

Active at random times of day

Eats mostly seeds

Eats mostly gum/sap

Remaining in group of birth

Females have more than one male mate

Solitary, pair-bonded, one-male units, polyandry, multi-male/multi-female, fission-fusion

Tropical Africa & Asia

Longer snouts
Wet curved noses
No color vision
Tooth comb
tapetum lucidum: reflective layer behind the retina
Solitary

Frugivores

Frugivores, Gumnivores, Insectivores

Complete orbital closure
Dry, simple noses
No tapetum lucidum, color vision
Vascularization to brain and of placenta

Insects and small vertebrae
Solitary, pair-bonded, some groups

Capuchins, Marmosets, Tamarins

Arboreal, Diurnal except for Owl Monkey

All diurnal
Arboreal or Terrestrial

2.1.3.3, broad nostrils, no eartube for Platyrrhines
2.1.2.3, narrow nostrils, eartube for Catarrhines
Difference is in premolars

Colobines (leaf-eating), Cercopithecines

Sacculated stomach
Reduced or absent thumbs
Mostly arboreal
Mostly folivores

Cheek pouches (food storage)
Female philopatry and strong FF bonds
Example: Japanese Macaque

Gibbons, Orangs, Gorillas, Chimps, Bonobos, Humans

Gregarious (except orangs), mostly frugivores (except gorillas)

Gibbons, Orangs, Gorillas, Chimps, Bonobos and then Humans on same line

Trait originally evolved for one function is coopted for a different purpose

Adaptation (function)- The increased likelihood of survival and reproduction that certain behaviors lead to
Phylogeny (evolution)- The behaviors of species ancestors that can explain why their descendants exhibit similar behaviors
Mechanism (causation)- The physical, biological, or endocrinological reasons why animals exhibit certain behaviors
Ontogeny (development)- The genetic and developmental factors that explain why animals exhibit certain behaviors
First two are ultimate, second two are proximate

Competition, Variance, Reproduction, Inheritance

Deeper, broader beaks

Number of your genome copies you pass directly to the next generation

Number of your genome copies passed indirectly to the next generation via kin

Number of your genome copies passed in total to the next generation (direct + indirect)

Traits shared due to common ancestry

Traits shared due to convergent evolution

the ability of one genotype to produce more than one phenotype when exposed to different environments

Traits that distinguish the sexes but are not necessary for reproduction

Female choice and sexual coercion vs male-male competition

Males have slightly higher on average, but significantly more variance

Asexual reproduction where females produce embryos from unfertilized eggs

Multiple sexual partners

Polygynous/promiscuous species have bigger males than monogamous species

Operational sex ratio: sexually active males/sexualy receptive females
Adult sex ratio: adult males/adult females
Accounts for duration of inter-berth interval and duration of estrous cycle

ASR has no impact, OSR has a positive relationship and results in larger males

Aggression directed at a female that makes her more likely to mate with the aggressor or less likely to mate with other males at a cost to the female

Reduced survivorship by males with elaborate structures is compensated by their advantage in reproductive success

Male takeovers, also more common in stable polyandry vs monogamy

Male reproductive success is limited by number of partners where as female RS is more dependent on access to resources

Paternity confusion, manipulation of reproduction, female coalitions, male friends

Smallest ape, low sexual dimorphism, Asian tropical forest, pair bonds

High sexual dimorphism, Asian tropical forest, solitary

Largest primate, high dimorphism, lowland forest, one male units

Moderate sexual dimorphism, lowland forest and woodland, multi-male, multi-female

Spend 50% of their daytime hours chewing
Eat ripe fruit, young leaves, pith, flowers, insect, meat
Preferred food is eaten to availability, high quality
Feeding adaptations such as traveling tend to be for fallback foods

Fission-fusion
Males are more social than females (party association, proximity, grooming)
Consortship (take female and go to border regions) allows males to monopolize a female without interference from others

Utilize 'core areas,' the quality of which is associated with reproductive success
Female RS correlated with rank due to more access to core areas, suggesting competition for these high-quality core areas
Disperse at adolescence, relatively solitary with 5-7 year inter birth interval
Multiple cycles per conception, typically mate with multiple males

Overt competition for dominance rank since high ranking males produce more offspring
Displays of physical aggression, pant-grunts given as signs of subordinacy

Stable troop (no fission fusion)
Female-female kin important for lineage
Younger daughters are higher rank within families
Females breed in natal groups, males disperse in adolescence

Consortships
Friendships, benefits given to females are protection and baby-sitting, to males increased future probability of paternity
New males in troop make friends with one female

Ranks tend to predict reproductive succes
New immigrants often highest ranks
Male alliances are long lasting
Xenophobic & dominance hierarchy among groups

Omnivore, arid habitat
Multi-tier social structure
Male-female bonds most important

Males 25% larger than females
Mainly frugivores, with 40-60% fruit, 5-10% leaves and 20-55% insects
Extractive foragers + tool users

Stable multi-male/multi-female troops
Females tend to be philopatric
Alpha male dominant to alpha female

No visible signs of estrous
Give birth all year, seasonal peak
Reproduce slowly

Stable partner preferences linked to kinship
Females form coalitions, maintain dominance hierarchy
All females nurse each others infants
Females groom each other more than with males
High rank means high reproductive success

Clear alpha male who maintains unity among males, forms coalitions with subordinate and prevents other coalitions
Cooperate in defense
Males have games and sexual interactions with each other

Alpha males require coalitional support of females
Females are hypothesized to receive protection from infanticide from males in their group

Females disperse to avoid infantacide- tend to leave during alpha male replacement and disperse with other mothers
Not to avoid inbreeding because males also leave
Not to reduce feeding competition because they enter new group at low rank

Aye Aye- medium, insects, dispersed, nocturnal
Sifaka/Indri- large, leaf eating, diurnal
Sportive Lemurs- small, leaf eater, dispersed, nocturnal
Mouse/Dwarf Lemurs- tiny, fruit & insect eater, dispersed, nocturnal
Lemurs- medium, frugivores & omnivores, diurnal

Diet- insects are low density and thus can only support small groups
Predation- Crypsis (camoflauge) is an anti-predator strategy

Island geography, unusual habitats, reduced predation pressure

Diurnal, mostly terrestrial, medium
Omnivores, seasonally varied diet
Multi-male, multi-female social groups

Female philopatry, males transfer between groups
Females have strong hierarchy, males less so
No sexual dimorphism
Female dominance is widespread
Reproduction is highly seasonal- same time for 6-24 hours each year
Males have intense contents during this short period, engage in stink fights

Benefits are vigilance, finding and guarding food, raising offspring
Costs are visibility, competition and disease

Risk is frequency of encounters with predators, rate is frequency of successful predatory attacks

High predation risk leads to larger groups
High predation rate leads to smaller groups
High predation risk leads to higher M:F ratio

Teams up temporarily with other species when predation risk is high, different diets mean they don't have to compete for food

Alarm calls
For chimps, females climb higher and males stand ground, distance between individuals decreases
For tarsiers against snakes and birds, males approach snakes and mob, neighbor distance decreases with snakes and increases with birds

2 or more prey approach predator, repeated advances, intimidate

Substrate use- disease risk incresaes with terrestrial because of soil-borne parasite (not true)
sociality- disease risk increases with groups size and pop density (not likely)
Sex- disease risk increases with promiscuity because of STDs (true)

Fruits- chimps
Leaves- gorillas and fallback for frugivores
Insects- tarsiers
Seeds- Saki monkeys
Gum- pygmy marmoset

Species often prefer not to eat the foods to which they are specifically adapted

Troops- predictable membership, together all day, gorillas, savannah baboons
Fission-Fusion- Predictable community membership, unpredictable party membership, chimps

Happens when increasing the group size results in less food for every individual

Dominants get access to food over subordinates

Food distrubution (abundance, quality) -> optimal female foraging strategy -> female distribution -> male distribution

High ranking females have higher fitness due to earlier age of first reproduction, shorter inter-birth intervals and higher infant survival rates, but not completely predictable
Effects of rank can vary with size of group
Sometimes having strong social bonds matters more

Food for chimps (higher in trees)
Safety for capuchins
Reduction of stress for Gelada baboons

Female-philopatric species: Promoted by individual motivation and opportunity, having close kin and obtaining coalitional support
Seyfarth Model: Uses grooming as currency and gets return benefit as coalitional support

FF aggression mainly involves immigrants since they don't have kin to help
Aggression is mainly from mothers to immigrants

Female chimps are more aggressive to each other in the absence of males
Females can protect themselves from other females using males

Duffy et al found that it increases mating success

Rank allows males to appropriate females, giving them priority access for mating, meaning rank correlates with RS
Works for small groups, doesn't work for large groups due to queue jumping (baboons and macaques)

Solo competition (temporary rank reversal)
High ranking males energetically stressed
Female choice
Male coalitions

Event in which 2 or more individuals simultaneously direct aggression towards 1 or more others

The higher the rank of the opponent, the higher the rank of the requested ally.
Studied in Bonnet Macaques

Many indviduals present
Large Tree
Low fruit density
White-faced Capuchins

Sexual intercourse

Coalitionary mate guarding- two or more males cooperate to prevent others from mating with a female
Helps them monopolize copulations, increasing RS
Larger the party, the larger the male coalitions since solo mate guarding becomes less effective
Males formed mate-guarding coalitions when doing so would net them more copulations than solo mate-guarding would
Alpha male is more tolerant of copulations by coalition partners independent of rank
Chimpanzees

Sometimes due to kin but inconsistent
Most likely due to reciprical altruism
Older males have stronger social bonds, likely due to loss in dominance

Aggression is more likely in feeding contexts (except for chimps)
Supplant them during feeding, disturb feeding with aggression, steal food from families

Madagascar has an extremely seasonal environment with lots of variation in food availability during the year.
The seasonal breeding cycle often means that females are gestating and lactating during poor food times.

The nature of food availability in bonobo habitats allows for females to be in parties together.

Males see increased opportunity for future mating, increased social support, agnostic buffering
Females see help with offspring, protection against aggression and infantacide since male friends more likely to help

Positive values indicate females maintaining relationship
Negative values indicate males maintaining relationship

Contrary to intuition, low-ranking males have higher levels of c-peptite
Food and centrality is the main correlator for reproductive hormones in females
Low-ranking females have higher cortisol when lactating, indicating stress
Higher ranking males have more testosterone and cortisol

If maintaining high testosterone is costly, then male testosterone should increase when it is most advantageous (i.e. when reproductive opportunities are present)- supported
Testosterone should peak when ‘challenged’ the most to promote aggressive responses- supported

A friendly encounter between two former opponents…typically occur[ring] just a few minutes after the end of a behavioral conflict
Peaceful Post-Conflict Interaction

Post conflict: Focal observation of aggressor or victim for X minutes after conflict, record friendly contact
Matched control: For each PC, observation of the same individual for X minutes not preceded by aggression, aim for controls and record friendly contact
If PC-rate > MC-rate, then former opponents are attracted to each other after conflict

Reduction of stress and self-directed behavior (scratching), especially for victims

After a conflict with a valuable partner, the benefit of repairing the relationship is greater than the risk associated with reconciliation
True because stronger bonds are more likely to reconcile

Empathetic support to reduce stress of stressed individual
Self-protection from victim's temper
Repai relationship quicker between aggressor and victim

insect larvae from under rocks

bright orange fur, makes them visible and everyone wants to hang out with them

make umbrellas

shark eggs, very difficult since you have to have a sense of timing

they harass them to death, roll them and tap them until they give up on life

use tools, hammer stones to open palm nuts

Northerly: Japanese macaques
Southerly: Chacma baboons

Tarsiers

Pregnant or recently inseminated female terminates preganancy following male takeover- if they have kid of previous male it will get killed
Geladas

Rainfal

Extreme seasonal breeding/synchronised estrous cycles

less inter-group feeding competition

Allonursing, high-ranking females do it less

Trust games

Catarrhines (old world monkeys and apes)

great hippocampus question- whether great ape brain also has hippocampus minor

Dilution, vigilance, active defense

Increased energy quantity in food/decreased energy expenditure in foraging

Pair bonds

Strength, stability, importance, mutualism

Within group contest competition

Age of first reproduction, shorter inter-birth intervals, higher infant survival, lower mortality

female coalition forming since bonobos have low sexual dimorphism

Secondary sexual characteristics