Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins,

(CH2O)n, where n>=3

a single sugar unit

made up of two monosaccharides joined together by the removal of H2O molecule

Condensation - the process in which two or more molecules are linked together (synthesized) by the removal of water (anabolism)

Hydrolysis - the splitting of a molecule by the addition of water (catabolism)

alpha 1–4 or beta 1–4 Glycosidic linkage

insoluble in H2O chain of monosaccharides (starches and cellulose)

Polymers have more brenches = less soluble
Large polysaccharides = insoluble in H2O = can’t pass through the pores of a membrane = don’t enter chem rxns = excelent storage units

1. Supply energy for cellular functions
2. Form support material: cellulose in plants and chitin in animals

glucose
galactose
fructose

maltose (glucose + glucose)
sucrose (glucose + fructose)
lactose (glucose + galactose)

starch
cellulose
glycogen
pectin

1. nonpolar, insoluble chain-like molecules with a C as a backbone (fats, oils, steroids)
2. Large number of C-H bonds = yield twice as much energy as carbs or proteins

Glycerol which has 3 OH groups that join with 3 fatty acid units

glycerol + fatty acids = fat

Ester bond via dehydration synthesis

product of dehydration synthesis reaction (condensation reaction)

reactant of hydrolysis reaction

1. Each C has two H in the backbone
2. solid at room temperature

1. there are C in backbones that have not recieved their full compliment of H, so they form a double bond C=C
2. liquid at room temperature

have one set of C=C
1. cis-fatty acid (H are on the same side)
2. trans-fatty acid (H are on different sides)

have more than one set of C=C

It is a sterol.

High levels of saturated fats increases the amount of chalesterol flowing through the blood vessels, and it clings to the wall of blood vessels, deacreasing their diameter and cutting off the blood supply to various organs.

atherosclerosis

1. energy storage - fats in animals, oils in plants
2. heat insulation - subcutaneous layer of fat
3. buoyancy - fats are less dense than H2O
4. sex hormones - estrogen and tesosteron
5. vision pigments

Long chain of amino acids. Proteins are made up of C, H, O, N, and often S

1. structural molecules - bone, muscle, membranes
2. enzymes - perform metabolic function
3. antibodies - immune system
4. hormones - regulate body activities
5. blood proteins - blood clotting
6. source of energy (last resort)

1. Fibrous proteins
2. Globular proteins

1. insoluble in water and are physically very strong
2. structural or protective elements in the organism
3. their long polypeptide chains form strand-like shape. Eg: feathers and nails

1. soluble in H2O and diffuse readily
2. polypeptide chains are tightly folded into spherical or globular shapes. Eg: enzymes, hormones

Amino acid consists of:
1. Amino group
2. carboxyl group
3. α- carbon
4. R - side group

when two amino acids join each together by dehydration synthesis (condensation), the resulting bond formed is a peptide bond and the resulting molecule is a dipeptide.

The carboxyl group from one amino acid joins the amino group from the other

1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
4. Quaternary

It is the sequence of amino acids in the protein

Local folding patterns of the polypeptide backbone due to hydrogen bonding.
1. Alpha helix (α-helix) → spiral structure
2. Beta-pleated sheet (β-sheet) → sheet-like folded structure

Formed by interactions between R-groups (side chains).
Types of R-group interactions:
1. Hydrogen bonds (between polar R-groups)
2. Ionic bonds (between charged R-groups)
3. Disulfide bridges (covalent bond between cysteine residues)
4. Hydrophobic interactions (nonpolar R-groups cluster inside protein)

Occurs when two or more polypeptide chains (subunits) combine to form one functional protein.
Examples:
1. Hemoglobin (4 subunits)
2 Many enzymes

Changes in pH or temperature alter 2°, 3°, or 4° structure, causing loss of function.

Function of the protein is dependent on its shape, and the shape is dependent on its amino acids sequence which, in turn, is dependent on the genetic code or specific DNA sequence.

Proteins that act as organic catalysts controlling chemical reactions of the cell

Nucleotides (sugar + phosphate group + nitrogen base).

Deoxyribonucleic acid, found in the nucleus, double chain in the form of a double helix

Deoxyribose

1. Purines - adenine and guanine (large, double ringed compounds)
2. Pyrimidines - cytosine and thymine (smaller, single ringed compounds)

Adenine + Thymine
Guanine + Cytosine

RNA - ribonucleic acid, this is found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of a cell.

Ribose

Uracil

1. mRNA - messenger RNA, carries the coded message from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
2. rRNA - ribosomal RNA, assists the functioning of the ribosomes
3. tRNA - transfer RNA, transports the amino acids to the ribosome for use in building the polypeptide and positions each amino acid in the correct place
4. snRNA - small nuclear RNA, cuts out introns from pre-mRNA before it leaves the nucleus