Lecture 1

a microscopic organism, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites. in pharmacy, microoranisms serve as both tools (manufacturing antibiotics, vaccines, vitamins) and threats (contamination, infection, resistance).

labratory techniques for combining DNA from different sources to produce thereutic products such as insulin, growth hormones, and monoclonal antibodies.

a polysaccharide produced by lactic acid bacteria during growth on sucrose. used clinically in the treatment of iron deficiency anemia and as anticoagulants.

an iron-chelating agent produced by microorganisms to scavenge iron from the environment. releveant to pharmaceutical development of iron-binding therapeutics.

a genus of gram-positive, filamentous soil bacteria responsible for producing approximately 80% of antibiotics used in medicine, as well as chemotherapeutics (actinomycin D, doxoruibicin), antivirals, antihypertensives, and immunosuppressants (tacrolimus).

a compound produced by a microorganism that is not essential for its primary growth but has pharmacological activity. examples include antibiotics, chemotherapeutics, and immunosuppressants produced by stretomyces.

a system of regulatory standards ensuring that pharmaceutical products are consistently produced and controlled to quality standards appropriate for their intended use, including prevention of microbial contamination.

the causatve organism responsible for an infectious disease.

a fever response triggered when microbial products (especially endotoxins) are introduced into the body, even in the absence of active infection. This is why endotoxin testing (LAL test) is required for parenteral drug products.

a component of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. the lipid A portion triggers pyrogenic and inflammatory responses when introduced into the bloodstream.

a quality control assay that detects endotoxin contamination in parenteral druig products and sterile medical devices. uses a reagent derived from horseshoe crab blood cells.

a genetic element tat enables bacteria to survive exposure to an antibiotic. these genes can transfer horizontally between bacterial species, spreading resistance even to organisms never directly exposed to the drug.

the transfer of genetic material (including resitance genes) between bacteria through mechanisms other than parent-to-offspring inheritance (e.g., conjugation, transformation, transduction).

corrdinated strategies to optimize antimicrobial prescribing and use, with the goals of improving patient outcomes, reducing adverse events, and slowing the development of antimicrobial resistance. pharmacists play a central role.

a chemical agent or physical procedure that kills microorganisms on inanimate surfaces (countertops, equipment, floors). Too toxic for use on living tissue. mnemonic: D = dead surfaces

an agent that inhibits bacterial growth with sufficiently low toxicity that it can be applied directly to skin, mucous membranes, or wounds. mnemonic: A = alive(skin/mucosa)

an agent that kills both vegetaitve cells and bacterial spores when applied to appropriate times and temperatures. represents the highest level of microbial kill. mnemonic: S = surigcal-level kill (spores included).

an actively growign and metabolizing bacterial cell, as distinguished from a dormant spore. most disinfectants and antiseptics can kill vegetative cells; only sterialnts reliably kill spores.

an antiseptic commonly used for pre-surgical skin preparation. preferred over povidone-iodine in many surigcal settings becuase it provides longer residual antimicrobial activity on the skin.

a broad-spectrum antiseptic used for wound cleansing and pre-surgical skin preparation. has broader antimicrobial coverage than hydrogen peroxide but shorter residual activity than chlorhexidine.

a disinfectant (dilute household bleach, typically 1:10 dillution) recommended by the CDC for decontaminating surfaces after blood spills involving HIV or hepatitis B risk. for use on surfaces only, never on skin.

a sterilization device that uses pressurized steam at 120C for 30 minutes to kill both vegetative cells and spores. the gold standard for instrument sterilization.

a chemical sterilant used for heat-sensitive medical instruments and devices that cannot withstand autoclave temperatures.

a chemical terilant used as an alternative to ethylene oxide for high-level disinfection and sterilization of heat-sensitive instruments

the lowest concentration of an antimicrobial compound that inhibits visible growth of a microorganism after overnight incubation. the primary value reported on clinical culture and susceptibility reports.

the lowest concentration of an antimicrobial that kills the organism, confirmed by subculturing onto antibiotic-free media and observing no growth. clinically important for serious infections (endocarditis, meningitis) where bactericidal activity is required.

the referencce standard method for determining MIC. serial two-fold diltuions of an antibiotic are prepared in liquid growth medium, inoculated with a standardized bacterial suspension, incubated overnight, and inspected for visible growth.

a plastic strip containing a predefined antibiotic concentration gradient. when placed on an inoculated agar plate, bacterial growth is inhibited in an elliptical zone; the MIC is read where the zone edge intersects the strip.

a susceptibility test method in which antibiotic-impregnated paper discs are placed on an inoculated agar plate. after incubation, the diameter of the zone of inhibition around each disc indicates susceptibility or resistance.

the clear area surrounding an antibiotic disc or Etest strip on an agar plate where bacterial growth has been prevented. larger zones generally indicate greater susceptibility.

describing an antimicrobial agent that inhibits bacterial growth without killing the organisms. removal of the agent allows growth to resume. relies on the patient's immune system to elimate the remaining bacteria.

describing an antimicrobial agent that kills bacteria, reducing viable cell counts over time. preferred over bacteriostatic agents in immunocompromised patients and in serious infections where immune clearnace may be insufficient.

the MIC threshold established by standards organizations (e.g., CLSI) that defines whether a clinical isolate is classifies as susceptible, intermediate, or resistant to a given antibiotic at standard dosing.

a screeing assay that uses Salmoella histidine auxotroph strains to detect the mutagenic or carcinogenic potential of chemical compounds. required by the FDA as part of drug safety evaluation.

a bacterial strain that has lost the ability to syunthezise the amino acid histidine and therefore cannot grow on histidine-free media unless a reversion mutation restores that ability. the basis of the Ames test.

a bacterium with a defective lipopolysaccharide (LPS) layer, resulting in an incomplete outer membrane. this increases permeability to large hydrophobic molecules, allowing test compounds to enter the cell more easily in the Ames test.

a mutation that restores a previously lost gene function. in the Ames test, a reversion mutation coverts a histidine-negative strain back to histidine-positive, enabling growth on histidine-free media.

a metabolic activation system prepared from rat liver homogenate, added to the Ames test to simulate mammalian liver metabolism. detects pro-mutagens that become mutagenic only after enzymatic conversion.

a compound that is not mutagenic in its original form but becomes mutagenic after metabolic activation (e.g., by liver cytochrome P450 enzymes). detected in the Ames test only when the S9 fraction is included.