ACADEC Science

neurotransmitter that is also known as serotonin; notable for its function in mood and emotion aka serotonin

the interval of time immediately following an action potential during which a second action potential cannot be initiated, as the voltage-gated sodium channels have not returned to their closed state and are not ready to be opened again

the specific wavelengths of light absorbed by a particular substance; in neuroscience, this refers to the opsins found in cone photoreceptors, each of which absorbs and transduces a different wavelength of light.

the basic event nerve cells use to transmit information from one place to another; a brief and drastic change in the membrane potential of a neuron, caused by the rapid opening and closing of ion channels

the movement of molecules or ions across a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration, meaning against the concentration gradient; energy is required to achieve this movement.

the site of neurotransmitter release

nerves/axons that bring information to the central nervous system or brain

the phase of a neuron's action potential when the cell's membrane potential falls below the normal resting potential; commonly referred to as the undershoot phase

a substance that binds to a receptor and causes the same action as the substance that normally binds to the receptor

a condition defined by the inability to detect motion

This principle refers to the fact that a nerve signal is sent at the same intensity regardless of the intensity of the initial impulse as long as an initial threshold is met, and thus the neuron fires at full strength or not at all.

a binding site on a protein where molecules can bind that is different from the main binding site that the usual binding partner uses (used by non-competitive agonists and antagonists)

a type of ionotropic receptor for glutamate that allows sodium influx, depolarizing the cell and mediating excitatory neurotransmission

a subcortical structure in the temporal lobe of the brain that is associated with regulating emotion; a major component of the limbic system

a substance that prevents the binding or the action of a substance that normally binds to a receptor

one of the ascending systems that brings sensory information from the body to the brain (specifically, pain and temperature)

the middle layer of the three protective membranes (meninges) that cover the brain and spinal cord; characterized by long, stringy components that look like spider webs

a region in the parietal lobe of the cortex that is involved with motion perception

computer systems that are able to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence

Developed to allow computers to mimic existing networks of neurons in the brain, these networks involve layers of nodes that are analogous to neurons.

a large, star-shaped glial cell in the brain that supports neurons and regulates the extracellular environment; astrocytes form part of the blood-brain barrier.

a component of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary physiologic processes, including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal

a long cord-like portion of the neuron's structure that conducts electrical impulses or action potentials away from the cell body

the site of transition between the cell body and the axon; controls the initiation of an electrical impulse

the end region of an axon that contains neurotransmitters for neural communication

an area of a rodent's primary somatosensory cortex representing the touch or somatosensory inputs of each of their whiskers

a cluster of nuclei deep in the cerebral hemispheres of the brain that is critical for voluntary bodily movement and motivation

the flexible membrane inside the cochlea where auditory transduction takes place, which encodes the frequency or pitch of a sound based on its position along the membrane

vision that incorporates inputs from both eyes into a single image

cells that connect photoreceptors to ganglion cells in the retina

a highly selective lining of the blood vessels in the brain that keeps certain molecules or infectious agents from gaining access to the central nervous system

a mechanism that functional MRI (fMRI) uses to record neural activity by tracking oxygenated blood flow in the brain; BOLD is an acronym for Blood Oxygen Level Dependent.

a system that allows a person to control a device or machine with their own brain by way of implanted electrodes

a stalk-like structure that connects the brain to the spinal cord; regulates many of the body's critical functions, including breathing, heart rate, coordination, and reflexes

a protein kinase activated by an increase in internal Ca2+ concentration; involved in several mechanisms that result in LTP

a visual receptive field with a circular center region and a surround region; stimulation of the center produces a response opposite of the response generated by stimulation of the surround.

a narrow tube through the length of the entire spinal cord that contains the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF); part of the ventricular system

the part of the nervous system that is encased in bone; made up of the brain and spinal cord

nuclei found deep within the cerebellum that provide the output from this structure

a structure at the rear of the brain that is responsible for controlling balance and other complex motor functions

a conduit that allows cerebrospinal fluid to flow between the third and fourth ventricle of the brain; part of the ventricular system

the outermost, wrinkly layer of the brain that plays an important role in memory, thinking, learning, reasoning, problem-solving, emotions, consciousness, and functions related to the senses

each of the two parts of the cerebrum (left and right) in the brain

fluid that cushions and protects the brain; produced by the choroid plexus; flows through the ventricular system to the subarachnoid space

the top section of the spinal cord that carries information to and from (innervates) the arms, neck, and shoulders

an opening or passageway for an ion to pass from one side of a membrane to the other

a light-sensitive cation channel, which was originally isolated from green algae; can be artificially expressed in neurons and then used to control the activity of that neuron using specific wavelengths of light

a force that is a result of an ion concentration gradient across the cell membrane,

a type of synapse in which presynaptic activity stimulates the release of neurotransmitters, activating receptors in the postsynaptic membrane

a network of blood vessels located between the sclera and the retina; brings oxygen and nutrients to the retina

a network of blood vessels in each ventricle of the brain that produce the cerebrospinal fluid

a learning procedure in which a stimulus that evokes a response is paired with another neutral stimulus that normally does not evoke this response; an association between these stimuli is then learned.

the section of the inner ear where auditory transduction takes place, translating sound waves into electrochemical signals

a substance that competes for the same receptor binding site as the endogenous neurotransmitter

a molecule that competes for the same binding site as the natural (endogenous) neurotransmitter and has the opposite effect as that transmitter

the use of computer algorithms to model the behavior of neurons to learn more about their processes

a field of psychiatry that uses computer algorithms in behavior testing to provide clinicians with more data about psychiatric patients and gather insight about the effect of treatments

the difference in concentration of a substance between one location and another

a photoreceptor type concentrated in the fovea of the retina; specialized for daytime vision and responsible for color vision

the shape of a receptor

insensitivity to pain, or pain blindness, present from birth

a map of the neural circuit structure and function within the human brain

the process by which recent learned experiences are transformed into long-term memory

the transparent external surface of the eye that is responsible for the majority of the refraction (bending/focusing) of light

the effect created by the number of neurons in the visual cortex varying as a function of the location of the stimulus in the visual field; items appearing in the central part of the visual field are represented larger in the visual cortex than objects at the edge of the visual field.

one of the descending motor pathways bringing motor information down from the brain to the muscles (specifically, voluntary movement commands for most parts of the body, including limbs and digits)

twelve pairs of nerves entering or exiting the brain at the brainstem that connect the central nervous system with the head, face, and neck

a transcription factor that is critical in producing new proteins necessary for maintaining structural changes in the synapse; activated by CAMKII

the part of the skull that divides the brain and olfactory bulb from the sinuses; contains tiny holes for olfactory axons to pass through, carrying smell information to the brain

limited periods of time when an aspect of brain development is particularly sensitive to inputs from the external environment

a secondary messenger that activates the enzyme protein kinase C and is involved in many signaling cascades

the crossing of nerve pathways from one side of the nervous system to the other

a complex version of an artificial neural network that is capable of highly advanced problem solving

to lose structure or function

a voltage-gated potassium channel named for its delay in returning the neuron membrane potential to rest following afterhyperpolarization

a projection of a neuron that receives signals from other neurons

the size and shape of the branching dendrites from one neuron

a region of the hippocampus that is notable for evidence of neurogenesis in adults

not carrying oxygen

a change in the membrane potential that takes it from the value at rest to a less negative (more positive) value

an area or stripe of skin whose neurons all send their input to the brain via the same spinal nerve and have their cell bodies in the same dorsal root ganglion

to move from a region of high concentration to low concentration, resulting in a more even distribution of a given ion

an area of negative charge next to an area of positive charge

In the visual system, these neurons fire action potentials maximally when they detect movement in a particular direction.

a type of catecholamine (derived from the molecule tyrosine) neurotransmitter that is involved in movement, mood, attention, and internal organ function; produced mainly in the ventral tegmental area and the substantia nigra of the basal ganglia

describes a cell that produces dopamine

one of the ascending systems that brings sensory information from the body to the brain (specifically, fine detailed touch information, vibration, and texture)

the part of the spinal nerves that contains the cell bodies for somatosensory neurons bringing information from the skin and tissues to the brain

the tough, outermost layer of the three protective membranes (meninges) that cover the brain and spinal cord

selectively binds to a protein to regulate its biological activity; can alter enzyme activity, gene expression, or other protein functions

nerves/axons that bring information down from the central nervous system or brain

flow out of a cell

the implantation of an electrode in the brain to stimulate specific neurons, neural networks, or brain regions in order to study the function of the cerebral cortex

the force created by the separation of charge across the membrane; tends to move ions in a direction determined by its charge, as like charges repel and opposite charges attract

the force exerted on an electrically charged particle; represented by the symbol V and measured in volts; also called voltage or potential difference

synapses in which electrical current flows directly from one cell to another via a junction that allows ions to pass directly (gap junction)

small, wire-based devices designed to read the electrical signals that the brain uses to process information

a test that measures electrical activity generated by the brain and recorded from the scalp using electrodes

recordings of the electrical activity of neurons

a process that brings substances into the cell; material to be internalized is surrounded by an area of cell membrane, which buds off inside the cell to form a vesicle containing the ingested material.

naturally occurring

a region of the medial temporal lobe that helps process perceptual and sensory inputs; the source of the majority of inputs to the hippocampus

the area between the dura mater and the skull; contains fat and small blood vessels

"a type of catecholamine (derived from the molecule tyrosine) neurotransmitter; also known as adrenaline; plays a key role in mediating the ""fight or flight"" response"

a type of long-term memory that involves the conscious recollection of previous personal experiences/events that can be explicitly stated

acronym for excitatory postsynaptic potential; refers to the temporary depolarization caused by the flow of positively charged ions into the postsynaptic cell; if the EPSP is large enough or several sum together, an action potential may occur.

the potential at which the electrical driving force across the cell membrane exactly balances the chemical driving force; at this point, there is no net movement of ions from one side of the membrane to the other.

an electrical potential that directly results from a particular stimulus or event; ERP experiments record EEG activity at a particular time in order to measure the neural response to one event or stimulus.

describes a condition or event that makes the neuron more likely to fire an action potential by bringing membrane potential up to or closer to threshold

results from too much excitation and prolonged positive membrane potentials and leads to neuronal death

a process by which material is released from an intracellular vesicle into the extracellular space by fusion of the vesicle membrane with the cell membrane

a type of long-term memory involving the recall of previously learned information that requires conscious effort to retrieve

fluid outside of the cell

the measurement of neuronal activity from outside the cell; typically measured either in extracellular fluid near the cell of interest or noninvasively

a region of the occipital lobe surrounding the primary visual cortex that is involved in high-resolution vision and object recognition

the part of an action potential that is characterized by a rapid fall of membrane potential from positive to negative; caused by the inactivation of the sodium channels and the opening of the potassium channels

a projection from the hippocampus that brings information from the hippocampus to a range of deep brain regions; involved in long-term memory encoding and consolidation

a diamond-shaped cavity involved in the ventricular system; one of the four cerebrospinal fluid-filled cavities within the human brain

the central portion of the retina, which contains only cone photoreceptors and is specialized for high acuity vision

the largest lobe in the human brain; located right behind the forehead, it has many regions that are responsible for complex thinking and cognition.

an imaging technique that monitors oxygenated blood flow changes to estimate the location of neural activity; can be used to create activation maps of which parts of the brain may be involved in a particular task

a small area of the brain found on the lower surface of the temporal lobe that is specifically involved in processing faces

membrane proteins or receptors that use G proteins to convert extracellular signals into intracellular responses when bound to a molecule or neurotransmitter; found in many different systems and cell types in the brain

− a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system; lessens a neuron's ability to receive, create, or send messages to other nerve cells

a collection of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system that carry signals to and from the central nervous systems

a type of cell junction in which adjacent cells are connected through protein channels; these channels permit the direct cell to cell transfer of ions and small molecules and form the basis of electrical synapses

describes skin that is hairless, often with a high concentration of sensory receptors for touch

cells found in the central and peripheral nervous system that provide support and immune protection to neurons

the clusters of nerve endings in the olfactory bulb where olfactory receptor neuron terminals meet the next neuron terminals meet the next neuron in the olfactory system

a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system; strengthens a neuron's ability to receive, create, or send messages to other nerve cells

a mathematical relationship used to predict the membrane potential from the concentrations and membrane permeabilities of ions

a generic term for a collection of neuronal cell bodies in the central nervous system; when a freshly dissected brain is cut open, large concentrations of neuronal cell bodies appear gray

a ridge on the surface of the brain

a reduction in the strength of synapses between neurons due to repeated stimulation; this results in decreased behavioral responses

a complex brain structure in the temporal lobe that plays a crucial role in learning and memory

a state categorized by a stable internal environment that relies on many variables such as body temperature being kept within certain pre-set limits by adjusting to changing external conditions

a laterally interconnecting cell in the retina of the eye that integrates and regulates input from multiple photoreceptor cells; helps form the center surround receptive fields

a chemical messenger of the body that circulates in the bloodstream and controls the actions of certain cells or organs

increased sensitivity to pain, often caused by inflammation or related damage

a change in the membrane potential to a more negative value

a structure located just below the thalamus in the forebrain that regulates the actions of the pituitary gland and many unconscious functions of the brain that are critical for homeostasis such as body temperature, blood pressure, hunger, thirst, and sleep

a type of long-term memory that is acquired and used unconsciously; accounts for acquired skills and conditioned responses such as riding a bike or tying your shoes

a cluster of grey matter found in the brainstem that forms an important relay station for auditory information on its way to the brain

makes a neuron less likely to fire by taking the membrane potential away from threshold

cells of the inner ear featuring stereocilia, which are long hair-like appendages that are moved back and forth by sound waves to transduce sound

to connect a structure or region by sending axons to that region

a structure is innervated by a region if that region supplies it with information

neurons found in the central nervous system that communicate with each other, often playing the role of a go-between to connect sensory and motor neurons

the implantation of an electrode into a single neuron to record precise changes in the membrane potential

an atom or molecule with a net positive or negative electric charge

a protein that spans the cell membrane, allowing the passage of ions from one side of the membrane to the other

the number of ions in a defined space

membrane-spanning proteins that have a central pore to allow ions such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, and/or Cl− to pass when a specific chemical or neurotransmitter molecule is bound

− a secondary messenger molecule that causes the release of Ca2+ from internal stores into the cytosol

an acronym for inhibitory postsynaptic potential; the temporary hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane that is caused by the flow of negatively charged ions into the postsynaptic cell, making it less likely to fire an action potential

the circular, pigmented muscle that controls the size of the pupil in the eye

a multilayered structure in the thalamus that processes visual input and regulates the flow and strength of visual information to the visual cortex

the capacity of excited neurons to reduce the activity of their neighbors

two C-shaped cerebrospinal fluid- filled cavities, located on the side of each cerebral hemisphere, that participate in the ventricular system

the dynamic, many-layered, clear structure behind the cornea of the eye that works to further refract light to focus an image on the retina

studies conducted by removing or damaging a region/particular cell type in the brain to understand its necessity for a specific behavior

describes a channel or gate that is opened only once the target molecule or neurotransmitter is bound

relating to emotion

a group of structures, including the amygdala, that are anatomically interconnected and support a variety of functions including emotion, learning, and memory

a small bundle of neurons found in the pons of the brainstem that can appear bluish; the primary source of norepinephrine (NE); involved in many functions such as regulating mood and attention

the weakening of a synaptic connection for an extended period of time, usually due to changes in the postsynaptic receptors

memories that are relatively permanent and do not require continual rehearsal

the strengthening of a synaptic connection for an extended period of time, usually due to changes in the postsynaptic receptors

neurons with cell bodies in the grey matter of the spinal cord that synapse directly onto muscles, telling them to contract or relax to create movement

the portion of the spinal cord that carries information to and from (innervates) the hips and fronts of the legs

a medical imaging technique that uses a magnetic field and computer- generated radio waves to create detailed images of the organs and tissues in the body

a type of somatosensory receptor that transduces touch information through mechanically gated ion channels

the region or nucleus of the thalamus used to relay auditory information to the cerebral cortex

the bottommost part of the brainstem where the brain and spinal cord connect; a key conduit for nerve signals to and from the body, controlling vital processes like the heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure

a type of somatosensory mechanoreceptor used to transduce light fluttering vibration from glabrous skin

the difference in charge (electric potential) across a cell membrane; represented by the symbol Vm

the process by which recently learned experiences are transformed into long-term memory

three layers of membranes that protect the brain and spinal cord; they include the pia mater, arachnoid, and dura mater.

a type of somatosensory mechanoreceptor used to transduce light touch information from regions where the sense of touch is highly acute

a type of membrane receptor that initiates a series of intracellular events to modulate cell activity; often indirectly linked with ion channels through complex signaling mechanisms

immune cells of the central nervous system that primarily function to clear dead neurons and pathogens

microscopic tubular structures that form part of the cytoskeleton and are key structural/ functional elements in axons; provide structure/ shape to eukaryotic cells and are involved in several functions, including cell division and movement

the topmost part of the brainstem that plays a key role in processing and integrating visual and auditory signals

transfers and magnifies sound waves from the ear canal and ear drum to the inner ear, where the sound waves are transduced

a unit used to measure the difference in electrical charge across a membrane (membrane potential)

membrane-bound cell organelles that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions; commonly referred to as the powerhouse of the cell

having the effect of regulating or adjusting

having input from one eye

an experimental manipulation that deprives one eye of normal vision in order to study changes in development

a neuron's particular shape

"axons sent by small neurons in the dentate gyrus to the main part of the hippocampus called Ammon's Horn; note that there is also a set of axons found in the cerebellum called ""mossy fibers."""

stretch receptors buried in skeletal muscle that detect the length of a muscle and report this to the brain for proprioception, or body position perception

an insulating layer made up of protein and fatty substances that forms around nerves (axons); allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the axons

the long fibers of protein filaments that make up a muscle, which can contract to shorten or relax to lengthen

the inability to see objects far away clearly (nearsightedness)

also known as the knee jerk reflex, in which the muscle of the front thigh contracts in response to the stretching of the tendon attaching the muscle to the knee

a peak in electrical activity that reflects the neural processing of faces and sometimes familiar objects; N170 changes in size or amplitude based on the type of face shown.

a mathematical relationship used to calculate the membrane potential at which the electrical and concentration gradients for a given ion balance out (ionic equilibrium potential)

a method of artificial intelligence that teaches computers to process data in a way that is inspired by the human brain

the process by which new neurons are formed in the brain

a synaptic connection between the terminal end of a motor nerve and a muscle; the site for the transmission of an action potential from the nerve to the muscle

the information-processing cell of the nervous system; also called a nerve cell; most neurons use action potentials to send signals over a distance, and all neurons communicate with one another using synaptic transmission.

the membrane of a neuron that separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment

chemical messengers that carry information from one neuron to the next target cell; neurotransmitters are usually produced in the soma and shipped down the axon to the terminal, where they are released via exocytosis and can diffuse to the next cell.

type of ionotropic receptor of glutamate, the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the human brain; the binding of glutamate is typically not sufficient to open the channel, as it may be blocked by Mg2+ ions, which are removed when the neuron is sufficiently depolarized

the sensation or perception of pain

gaps in the myelin sheath along a neuron where an axon comes in contact with the extracellular fluid; facilitate the rapid conduction of nerve impulses and prevent degradation of the action potential as it travels down the axon

a substance that can enhance the activity of a neurotransmitter without blocking its binding site by binding to a different site (allosteric site)

a molecule that does not compete for the same binding site as the natural (endogenous) neurotransmitter, binding to an allosteric site; it has the opposite effect as the natural neurotransmitter.

refers to a medical procedure that does not require the introduction of instruments or foreign substances into the body

"type of catecholamine (derived from the molecule tyrosine) neurotransmitter; also known as noradrenaline; plays a key role in mediating the ""fight or flight"" response"

a membrane-enclosed organelle within a cell that serves both as the repository of genetic information and as the cell's control center

one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex; sits at the back of the head and is responsible for visual processing

stripes of neurons in the visual cortex that respond preferentially to input from one eye over the other

chemical particles in the air that can be transduced by olfactory receptor neurons

an extension of the brain that is found below the frontal lobe, which contains several types of nerve cells that are involved in the sense of smell

the specialized tissue found in the nasal cavity or sinuses in which olfactory receptor neurons are found

glial cells that provide myelin in the central nervous system

a light-absorbing pigment; each absorbs a different wavelength or color of light; each type (color) of cone has its own type of opsin, which preferentially absorbs and transduces that one wavelength of light.

the place in the brain that forms an X-shaped structure where some of the optic nerve fibers coming from one eye cross optic nerve fibers from the other eye

a bundle of axons that carry visual messages; formed by the axons of retinal ganglion cells leaving the eye

a bundle of axons that carry visual information from the optic chiasm to the brain, as a continuation of the optic nerve

a method of controlling a neuron's activity using light and genetic engineering

the structure in the cochlea of the inner ear in which the hair cells are found

the small bones found in the middle ear that act like a series of levers to transfer and magnify the sound waves from the ear drum to the cochlea of the inner ear

cells of the inner ear featuring stereocilia, or long hair-like appendages, that can extend or contract to magnify the vibration of the basilar membrane, which helps the cochlea transduce with high sensitivity and accuracy

the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is more positive than 0 mV

a type of somatosensory mechanoreceptor used to transduce deep vibration information

the ability of the brain to simultaneously process incoming stimuli, including color, motion, shape, and depth, separately by different cells at all levels of the visual system

"a division of the autonomic nervous system involved in ""rest and digest""; maintains the heart rate and respiratory, metabolic, and digestive functions"

one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex; located at the upper back area in the skull; processes sensory information received from the outside world like touch, taste, and temperature

a substance that competes for the same binding site as an endogenous neurotransmitter but has a smaller effect on the postsynaptic receptor

a type of membrane transport that does not require energy to move substances across cell membranes

"a French surgeon and scientist known for his work supporting the localization of speech and language to the left side of the brain; this region is known as ""Broca's Area."""

an axon bundle extending from the entorhinal cortex to a region of the hippocampus called the dentate gyrus

the part of the nervous system that lies outside the brain and spinal cord; plays a key role in sending information from different areas of the body back to the brain; involved in voluntary movements and regulating involuntary (autonomic) functions, such as heart rate and digestion

allows substances to pass through

to alter the function of a biological system

a condition in which patients experience sensations in a limb that does not exist due to the connections from the periphery to the brain remaining in place after amputation

the process in which a phosphate group is added to a molecule, often serving to increase its activity

cells in the eye's retina that are responsible for converting light into signals that are sent to the brain

a pseudoscience involving the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits and abilities; now known to be without scientific merit

the thin, innermost layer of the three protective membranes (meninges) that cover the brain and spinal cord; keeps the cerebrospinal fluid outside the brain but allows blood vessels to pass through to access the brain

a pigmented cell layer just outside the neurosensory retina that works to support the function of photoreceptors in a variety of ways, including absorbing excess light

the visible, external part of the ear that resides on the outside of the head

"referred to as the ""master gland"" because it monitors and regulates many bodily functions through the hormones that it produces; acts as a control center for most other endocrine glands in the body"

a class of membrane-bound enzymes that cleave or break apart phospholipids; specifically, PLC cleaves the membrane phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4-5-bisphosphate to form the second messengers DAG and IP3.

the middle portion of the brainstem that serves as a bridge between the medulla and the thalamus; involved in coordinating facial movements, chewing muscles, hearing, and balance

a method of representing stimuli by using the coordinated activities of a number of neurons working together

an area of the postsynaptic membrane by the synaptic cleft that is thickly clustered with receptors and their attached molecular machinery

the neuron receiving a signal on the other side of the synaptic cleft (the space between neurons at a synapse)

the channel responsible in part for the negative resting potential of most neurons; these channels are always open, causing the cell to leak positively charged potassium ions.

the cerebral cortex covering the front part of the frontal lobe; plays a central role in functions such as thinking, feeling, and cognition

an area of the cerebral cortex found in the back of the frontal lobe where motor commands are planned out before they are executed

the neuron releasing the neurotransmitter signal at the synapse (the point where two neurons communicate)

an area of the cerebral cortex found in the upper gyrus of the temporal lobe that is responsible for integrating and processing auditory perception

an area of the cerebral cortex found in the insula that is responsible for flavor and taste perception

an area of the cerebral cortex found at the very back of the frontal lobe that is responsible for issuing motor commands to the muscles of the body

an area of the cerebral cortex found at the front of the parietal lobe (next to the motor cortex) that is responsible for integrating and processing touch, pain, and temperature signals from the body

the region of the cortex found at the very back of the brain that is specialized for the initial processing of visual input

a phenomenon in which exposure to one stimulus influences how a person responds to a subsequent, related stimulus

a type of long-term memory involved in the performance of different actions and highly practiced skills; essentially, it is the unconscious muscle memory of how to do certain things, like how to ride a bike.

to move a signal (action potential) down the axon of a neuron

the sense of where your body is in space; calculated by the stretch and force on your muscles, joints, and tendons

a neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize faces

the opening that allows light to enter the eye

neurons characterized by a pyramidal- shaped cell body (soma) and two distinct dendritic trees; these are the most prevalent neuronal type in the cerebral cortex.

the pulse used in MRIs that is applied for a few milliseconds to disturb the alignment of atoms from the main magnetic field

a specific region in the sensory domain (for vision, a region of visual space; for touch, a region of the skin, etc.) where an appropriate stimulus can evoke a neuronal response

an involuntary movement in response to a stimulus; does not receive or require conscious thought

the bending of light rays that can occur when the rays travel from one medium to another

the interval of time during which a second action potential can be initiated, but initiation will require a greater stimulus than was previously required to reach threshold

the membrane potential maintained by a cell when it is not generating an action potential; many neurons have a resting membrane potential of about -65 mV.

one of the descending motor pathways bringing motor information down from the brain to the muscles (specifically, for gross movement and posture of the trunk)

the thin layer at the back of the eyeball containing cells that are sensitive to light and send nerve impulses along the optic nerve to the visual cortex

neurons that connect the input from the retina to the visual processing centers within the brain

connects the retina to the primary visual cortex (V1) through the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

a map of visual information from the retina onto neurons in the visual cortex

the movement of neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic cell to be repackaged and recycled

light-sensitive photopigment in rods

the first part of an action potential; characterized by a rapid depolarization of the membrane as positive sodium ions rush into the cell

photoreceptor in the retina specialized for low-light vision; more numerous in the periphery of the retina

one of the descending motor pathways bringing motor information down from the brain to the muscles (specifically, voluntary movement relating to maintaining muscle tone)

a type of somatosensory mechanoreceptor used to transduce stretch sensation information

the portion of the spinal cord that carries information to and from (innervates) the buttocks, backs of the legs, and the genitalia

the conduction of an electrical impulse in a manner such that it skips from node to node down the full length of a myelinated axon

axons of the neurons in the CA3 regions of the hippocampus that form synapses in the CA1 regions, transferring information from the CA3 to the CA1 region; play an integral part in memory formation

glial cells that play essential roles in insulating (myelinating) and supplying nutrients to neuronal axons in the peripheral nervous system

a short-lived chemical signal in the cytosol that can trigger a response; second messenger formation is usually stimulated by a first messenger (a neurotransmitter or hormone) binding to a G-protein coupled receptor.

a type of long-term memory involving the recollection of words, concepts, or numbers

three tiny, fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear that transduce information about spin and rotation of the head in order to help maintain balance

a learning process in which the repeated administration of a stimulus results in the progressive amplification/strengthening of a behavioral response

a topographical representation of the body found in the cerebral cortex, mapping out which sensory signals come from which parts of the body

a receptor that detects and transduces sensory stimuli like light, sound, and pressure into electrochemical signals that the nervous system and brain can receive, process, and understand

the process of translating sensory stimuli such as light, sound, or pressure on the skin into electrochemical signals via a sensory receptor

a neurotransmitter, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine, that is notable for its function in mood and emotion

the capacity to store a small amount of information in the mind and keep it in an active, readily available state for a short time

the process in which the strength of a signal is increased after the binding of one signal molecule to a receptor; this binding triggers a chain of events that not only carries the signal to the cell interior, but also amplifies it.

a series of chemical reactions that occur within a biological cell when initiated by a stimulus

proteins that mediate the fusion of vesicles with their target membrane; play a notable role in mediating neurotransmitter release from synaptic vesicles in neurons (exocytosis)