Psych 202 #3

Explain Otto Loewi's experiment

These ligands come from within the body

These ligands come from outside the body (eg drugs)

This is when a neuron can make or release more than 1 type of transmitter.

This neurotransmitter is the most common, and the most important excitatory neurotransmitter, it is especially important for learning and memory and is sent to/from everywhere. Oversupply of this neurotransmitter may lead to migraines or seizures.

This is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter, it is sent to/from everywhere. Undersupply of this neurotransmitter is linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

This neurotransmitter is sent from the basal forebrain and is crucial for learning, memory, motor control, and parasympathetic activity. When the neurons producing this transmitter deteriorate, it can lead to Alzheimer's.

This neurotransmitter is sent from the midbrain (ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra). It influences reward, learning, attention, movement, and emotion. Oversupply of this is linked to schizoprenia, while undersupply is linked to Parkinson's.

This neurotransmitter is sent from the raphe nuclei in the midbrain. It participates in mood, vision, hunger, anxiety, sexual behavior, sleep, and arousal. Undersupply of this is linked to depression.

This neurotransmitter is sent from the locus coeruleus and lateral tegmental area. It controls alertness, mood, and sexual behavior. Undersupply can lead to a depressed mood.

This neurotransmitter is sent from everywhere, and influences perception of pain, thrill, sexual behavior, hunger, and maternal care. Oversupply via opiate drugs can suppress critical functions like heart rate and breathing.

Specialized proteins that help with reuptake by binding to a neurotransmitter and bringing them back to the presynaptic terminal to be recycled.

When enzymes break down neurotransmitters to deactivate them.

Receptors that open or close an ion channel when bound to a neurotransmitter (ligand-gated)

Receptors that provide a link to G-proteins in the postsynaptic neuron, which changes the postsynaptic cell due to second messengers activated by the G-proteins.

Criteria for classical neurotransmitters

Transmitters that can diffuse across the synapse back to the presynaptic neuron, causing changes in the presynaptic neuron.

Exogenous substances that compete with endogenous ligands for the same binding sites.

Exogenous substances that bind to a different site as the endogenous ligands.

An exogenous substance that can weakly activate a receptor.

Any substance that binds to a receptor

The amount of drug in the body that is free to act on the target tissue, as opposed to being used elsewhere or in the process of being eliminated.

When the metabolites of drugs themselves are active, the drug itself can be biologically modified into a different substance.

Drugs usually bind strongly to certain receptor types and weakly to others, what is this called?

The extent to which a drug molecule affects a receptor it is bound to.

This curve is used to describe how dangerous a drug is. It typically includes two sigmoidal shapes, one representing how much dose is required to get the maximal effect, and another representing what percentage of test subjects die at certain doses.

On a dose response curve, the difference between the dose where 50% of test subjects die and the dose where 50% of the maximal effect is achieved.

This system in the brain makes designing drugs difficult, as it requires drug molecules be small to get in the brain.

This route of drug administration is typically slow to moderate, and the drug is affected by gut absorption and digestive factors.

This route of drug administration is typically moderate to fast, taking advantage of nose/lungs vascularization to bring drugs directly to the bloodstream. It involves techniques such as smoking or snorting.

This route of drug administration is typically moderate to fast, as the drug is injected directly into the body.

This route of drug administration is typically the fastest, as it circumvents the blood-brain barrier, rules out peripheral effects, and directly affects a discrete brain location.

When the body/metabolic organs become more effective at removing a certain drug from the bloodstream.

When the target tissue changes its sensitivity to the drug through postsynaptic neurons up/downregulating their receptors.

When tolerance to a drug generalizes to tolerance to other drugs of the same chemical class.

Stages of transmitter production that can be affected by drugs

Stages of transmitter release that can be affected by drugs

Stages of transmitter clearance that can be affected by drugs

These are drugs that block dopamine receptors.

These drugs block reuptake of serotonin, they are used to treat depression.

These drugs block reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine, they are used as antidepressants.

An enzyme that breaks down monoamine transmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, epinephrine).

Antidepressants that block monoamine oxidase.

A class of drugs that inhibits neural activity using GABA receptors.

An depressant that can be used to help treat narcolepsy, but also has high potential for abuse. It is a direct GABA_B receptor agonist.

Depressants that are noncompetitive GABA_A receptor agonists.

Depressant drugs that can be used to treat anxiety.

This class of anxiolytic is used to treat anxiety and can also help with REM behavior disorder, seizures, relaxation and sleep, it is a noncompetitive GABA_A receptor agonist. Some examples of this are Xanax and Ativam.

The most commonly used depressant drug, this is a direct GABA_B receptor agonist.

These drugs reduce pain sensations, especially in the periaqueductal gray, these can be fatal if one gets addicted, examples are OxyContin and fentanyl.

Painkilling drugs.

An active ingredient in cannabis that is responsible for producing a high.

An active ingredient in cannabis that has anxiolytic effects and other medicinal actions.

Effects of cannabis/endocannabinoids

A stimulant that activates Ach receptors, it increases heart rate, blood pressure, digestive action, and alertness, can hurt the physiology/cognitive development of babies if used by pregnant women, can enhance some aspects of cognitive performance, but is addictive. It is most commonly consumed in cigarettes.

A stimulant that boosts the effects of monoamine transmitters like dopamine and norepinephrine by blocking their reuptakes. Overuse of this drug may lead to stroke, psychosis, loss of gray matter in the frontal lobe, severe mood disturbances, and can change the structure and function of brain parts to make quitting even harder. It was originally found in the coca plant from Bolivia.

A stimulant that acts within axon terminals so an especially large amount of dopamine/norepinephrine is released into synapses. It also blocks reuptake and metabolic breakdown of these transmitters. In the short term it can lead to increased vigor, stamina, wakefulness, euphoria, and decreased appetite. Addiction to it can lead to sleeplessness, severe weight loss, deterioration of mental/physical condition, and schizoprenia-like symptoms. This can be used to treat ADHD symptoms.

Stronger, more addictive drug that is similar to amphetamines.

A stimulant that blocks presynaptic adenosine receptors that monitor transmitter release, leading to extra transmitter being released.

Other word for psychedelic drugs, especially if used for spiritualeligious purposes.

A psychedelic drug with a mostly visual effect, it activates 5-HT_2A receptors in the visual cortex, microdoses can boost cognition and mood.

A psychedelic amphetamine derivative that is associated with prosocial feelings and behavior such as empathy alongside euphoria and visual effects. It is being investigated to help treat PTSD, but long-term use can cause cognitive performance and mood problems and lasting changes in patterns of brain activation.

This psychedelic is often referred to as "magic mushrooms", it alters brain activity in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and anterior cingulate cortex. Users report spiritual experiences, feelings of transcendence, and visual and time distortions. It can be used to treat OCD symptoms, cluster headaches, depression, anxiety, and anguish.

This psychedelic blocks NMDA receptors and stimulates opioid/Ach receptors. It creates a detached, trancelike state and psychedelic perceptual alterations. It can be used as an anesthetic or an antidepressant in low doses.

Weakness of character and lack of self control is the reason people get addicted to drugs. This model is fairly outdated.

Substance abusers need medical treatment. The main criticism of this model is that there are no physical abnormalities for drug addiction (except a bit genetic susceptibility).

Drug abusers keep taking drugs to avoid withdrawal symptoms. The main criticism of this model is that it doesn't explain why people start substance abuse before they face withdrawal symptoms, or get addicted to drugs with no withdrawal symptoms.

Drugs provide powerful reinforcement that can make people addicted.

Many addictive drugs cause dopamine release in the _______ _______, making the user associate them with pleasure.

This part of the brain plays a role in addiction, cravings, and pleasure. For example, stimulation here via rTMS can reduce nicotine cravings.

The process of shifting a circadian rhythm/synchronizing it with one's environment.

A cue one can use to synchronize their circadian rhythm with their environment, like light.

What kinds of brain waves do EEGs show in awake individuals?

What kinds of brain waves do EEGs show in individuals who are relaxed or in stage 1 sleep?

What kinds of brain waves do EEGs show in individuals in stage 2 sleep?

What kinds of brain waves do EEGs show in stage 3 sleep?

What kinds of brain waves do EEGs show in REM sleep?

What activity is in the muscles, eyes, and brain during REM sleep?

What activity is in the muscles, eyes, and brain during non-REM sleep?

Which stage tends to happen more at the beginning of the night, and which tends to happen more at the end of the night?

What do sleep spindles do? What do K-complexes do?

These waves often occur during REM sleep, they are associated with rapid eye movement, thought to trigger visual imagery in dreams, and help with memory consolidation.

These rhythms last longer than 1 day.

These rhythms last less than 1 day.

This part of the brain is in the hypothalamus above the optic chiasm, it is responsible for circadian rhythms.

A circadian rhythm that isn't influenced by zeitgebers, it is typically a bit over 24 hours, sometimes around 25 hours, in humans.

The resetting of one's circadian rhythm, with zeitgebers such as light and dark cues.

How do human sleep patterns change across our lifespans?

What four neural systems underlie sleep?

This part of the brain recieves signals from the SCN and secretes melatonin, which signals darkness to the brain.

Photopigment in the eye that communicates with the SCN about light and dark cues.

The axonal pathway used to send light cues from the eyes to the SCN in the hypothalamus.

A diffuse group of cells with axons and dendrites in many directions, going from the medulla to the hypothalamus. Electrical stimulation here activates the forebrain, so it is responsible for waking the forebrain up from SWS.

This part of the brainstem is responsible for triggering REM sleep.

This part of the forebrain produces slow-wave sleep.

This part of the forebrain contains the SCN, it produces orexin and uses it to switch between wakefulness, non-REM sleep, and REM sleep.

What are 4 theories about why we sleep?

What was found out about rats' memory consolidation when they sleep during the rat maze experiment?

The theory that dreams have no meaning, and they are just an explanation synthesized by the cortex for random brainstem activity.

Effects of sleep deprivation

An effect of medium-term sleep deprivation where one sleeps for a few seconds at a time while awake.

When one has trouble falling asleep. This can be caused by shift work, time zone changes, and daily routine changes.

When one has trouble staying asleep. This can be caused by drugs and other factors.

When one feels excessively sleepy during the day, even while getting a normal amount of sleep.

A disorder where one gets frequent sleep attacks due to degenerating orexin neurons. They typically last 5-30 minutes and happen multiple times a day, such as every 90 minutes, and typically involve REM sleep early on in the attack.

A sudden loss of muscle tone, leading to collapse of the body without loss of consciousness. This can happen to people with narcolepsy.

A complete absense of muscle tone, typically associated with REM sleep.

A sleep disorder where breathing becomes unreliable during sleep, often due to relaxation of chest/throat muscles or changes in the pacemaker respiratory neurons of the brainstem. This is common in obese people and often is accompanied by loud snoring.

A neuropeptide/hormone used by the hypothalamus to switch between wakefulness and REM/non-REM sleep. In narcoleptic people, neurons that use this substance start degenerating between the ages of 15-25 when symptoms start, and continue to degenerate throughout life.

These 3 sleep disorders are most common in kids and happen during Stage 3 sleep.

Temporary paralysis either just before or after waking, typically after waking from a REM episode, it feels similar to cataplexy.

A sleep disorder most common in older people and men, where one acts out their dreams. Getting this disease often precedes symptoms of Parkinson's and Dementia, so this is often the beginning of widespread neurodegeneration.

What was found by the 2013 mouse sleep study?

Memories here stay in your memory for about 30 seconds or as long as you keep rehearsing the info. They can either be consolidated into long-term memory, or gone for good if you get distracted. These memories are stored in different parts of the prefrontal cortex.

This type of memory represents things that have happened in one's life, it is declarative and stored in the medial temporal lobe and neocortex.

This type of memory represents facts that can be declared/explained to others, it is stored in the medial temporal lobe and neocortex.

This type of memory represents skills that can be learned and demonstrated, it is stored in the striatum, motor cortex, and cerebellum.

This type of memory is the reason why words we have recently seen come to mind more easily, it is stored in the neocortex.

This type of memory happens when we associate a certain stimuli with something that would lead us to elicit a response, and thus respond to the stimuli a certain way. It is stored in the amygdala and cerebellum.

This type of memory happens when a certain action is associated with a reward/consequence, and this affects if the action will be done again or not.

This type of memory is not associative, and includes concepts such as habituation. It is stored in reflex pathways.

This type of memory has to do with navigation, and is stored in the hippocampus and the cortex.

Classical conditioning of emotional reactions, stored in the amygdala.

Classical conditioning of motor responses, stored in the cerebellum.

This patient had mild retrograde amnesia and severe anterograde amnesia after a surgery where his hippocampus was removed. His declarative memory was impaired, although his nondeclarative memory was fine.

This patient had damage to his left frontoparietal and right parieto-occipital cerebral cortex, and severe shrinkage of both left and right hippocampus and nearby cortex, after a motorcycle accident. He lost his ability to remember his past or create new episodic memories, although his semantic memory was fine.

This patient was a famous orchestra conductor who suffered from herpes encephalitis. He lost almost all his declarative memories, remembering only some semantic stuff and his wife. He could no longer form new declarative memories and had a short-term memory span of 7-30 seconds. He frequently felt like he had just woke up from a coma.

Loss of memories that happened before an event

Loss of the ability to form new memories

Thanks to HM, we know that this part of the brain is necessary for episodic memory.

Which brain region is necessary for spatial learning?

These neurons in the hippocampus selectively encode specific locations.

These neurons in the entorhinal cortex can act like grids to help with spatial navigation.

This is a task used to test for monkeys' declarative memory through object recognition where a monkey must pick the object it hasn't seen before.

This part of the brain is important for declarative memories, it is damaged in the brains of those with Korsakoff's Syndrome. It likely connects the medial temporal lobes to the thalamus.

Damage to these two brain parts impairs skill learning.

A process in which neural connections and brain structure are changed, necessary for learning.

What is the Hebbian learning rule?

Which change in brain structure can be seen in those with highly superior autobiographical memories?

A process in Hebbian synapses where a tetanus applied to the presynaptic neuron leads it to produce many action potentials and cause the postsynaptic neuron to fire repeatedly, making this synapse stronger and more effective.

A brief high frequency burst of stimuli that causes long-term potentiation.

The neurotransmitter that is most studied when it comes to Hebbian synapses and LTPs.

Before LTP, these ions block NMDA receptors' calcium channels in the postsynaptic cell, preventing them from responding to glutamate. These ions are ejected from the receptor channels if large amounts of glutamate are released due to depolarization.

During LTP, calcium ions are free to enter NMDA receptors. What effects do they have on the cell?

The opposite of LTP, where a synapse gets weaker due to lack of use.