Psych 202 #2

A patient who suffered carbon monoxide poisoning. The damage to her brain made it so that she could no longer identify faces and objects, but was still aware of their location and how to interact with them (eg. pick them up).

The process of translating environmental stimuli into signals the brain can understand.

Visible waves with longer wavelengths look more _____, while visible waves with shorter wavelengths look more _____.

The amplitude of a wave.

A phenomena where light bends when it goes through a different medium (the cornea takes advantage of this to focus).

Contraction of ciliary muscles controlling the lens in the eye causes nearer images to come into focus on the retina.

This is the most common type of visual impairment in young people, where they struggle to see things that are far away because their eyeballs are too long. There is evidence pointing to indoor lighting as the cause for this.

Farsightedness, where people struggle to see things up close due to short eyeballs.

Age-related farsightedness, that occurs as the lens loses flexibility with age.

The transparent outer layer of the eye, does most of the work to focus.

The colored part of the eye, a muscle that restricts the amount of light entering the eye.

Part of eye that lets light in.

This part of the eye is controlled by ciliary muscles, it changes shape to fine-tune the image on the retina.

These muscles control the lens, they contract to bring nearer items into focus.

A layer of neurons in the back of the eye that turns light into neural signals.

Sensory neurons that detect light and turn it into neural signals.

How are humans able to see in such a vast range of light levels?

A steady inward flow of positive ions into bipolar and ganglion cells makes it so that in the darkness they are constantly depolarized and releasing glutamate, what is the term to describe this phenomenon?

Light-sensitive pigment used by rods.

There are about 100 million of these photoreceptors in the eye, they provide us with scotopic vision, they are sensitive to light and operate at many light levels but insensitive to color.

There are about 4 million of these photoreceptors in the eye, they provide us with photopic vision, they don't work at low light levels but have high acuity and can see color.

What is it called when information from multiple cells converges to one cell?

These cells can be on or off-center, they communicate between the photoreceptors and the retinal ganglion cells.

These cells form the optic nerve and send action potentials from the eye to the brain.

These cells aid in lateral communication between photoreceptors and bipolar cells. ____ cells are between the photoreceptors and bipolar cells, and ____ cells are between the bipolar and retinal ganglion cells.

How is the projection of the visual field on the retina different from what you actually see/what is actually there?

What is the purpose of having on-center and off-center cells?

The middle of the visual field.

Made up of the axons of the ganglion cells, this brings visual information from the eyes to the optic chiasm in the brain.

This is a blind spot in the eyes due to it being the location of many retinal ganglion cells going toward the brain.

This is where the optic nerves from both eyes cross.

This is a continuation of the optic nerve after it crosses the optic chiasm, it brings the signals to the lateral geniculate nucleus.

The area in the thalamus where visual signals are sent

When the activity of a bipolar cell inhibits other bipolar cells (via horizontal cells)

What is an effect of lateral inhibition on our vision?

Which optical illusion involves looking at different colored bands, which appear darker on the side next to a lighter band and lighter on the side next to a darker band?

Which optical illusion involves a grid that appears to have gray dots on it, but they vanish when you look directly at them?

How is visual information sent to the brain (in terms of left and right)?

Nerves leading from the LGN to the primary visual cortex.

What is the projection of the retina in the brain like?

Another name for the primary visual cortex

What are visual areas outside the striate cortex called?

These cortical cells respond best to an edge or a bar with a particular width, location, or orientation.

These cortical cells require movement (often in a specific direction) to respond actively.

What does the ventral visual stream detect?

What does the dorsal visual stream detect?

Where in the brain do we perceive visual motion?

What kind of color mixing do we get from light?

What theory is described: the brain has blue-sensitive, red-sensitive, and green-sensitive receptors, each with a separate path to the brain, colors recognized are based on which receptors were activated.

What theory is described: there are 4 unique hues (blue, green, red, yellow) and 3 opposed pairs of colors (blue and yellow, green and red, black and white) as the basis of color vision.

A condition including misalignment of 2 eyes where one eye has poor acuity.

A perceptual blind spot caused by injury, this can be used to diagnose damage to parts of visual areas.

A phenomenon where one has some visual discrimination and ability to correctly perceive objects in a blind spot/somewhere they can't see.

A condition where one's dorsal "where" stream is damaged/destroyed so they can identify objects but can't perceive where they are in space.

The leading cause of age-related vision loss due to retinal damage.

What causes colorblindness (dichromatic vision)?

What are the benefits of binocular vision?

How have humans managed to give color vision to squirrel monkeys?

What are pure hues (of blue, green, yellow, red) called?

What is frequency of a soundwave perceived as?

What is intensity/amplitude of a soundwave perceived as?

The combination of component frequencies that make up all natural sounds.

What is complexity of a soundwave perceived as?

Frequency is measured in ___ while intensity is measured in ___.

A sound with only 1 frequency of vibration.

The lowest frequency in a sound, all other frequcies are multiples of this frequency.

Multiples of the fundamental frequency.

What are the structures of the outer ear?

What are the structures of the middle ear?

What are the structures of the inner ear?

The visible outer part of the ear, this funnels sounds into the ear canal and has ridges and valleys that enhance and suppress different frequencies.

This structure gets hit with soundwaves from the ear canal and vibrates with the same frequency as them to pass soundwaves on to the middle ear.

These tiny bones vibrate from soundwaves, they concentrate and amplify the vibration so it can be transferred to the inner ear, which contains a denser medium than air.

What are the 3 ossicles?

A specialized patch of membrane that transfers vibrations from the ossicles to the inner ear.

A specialized patch of membrane that releases pressure out from the cochlea.

A coiled, fluid-filled part of the inner ear that contains the hair cells that transform vibrational waves into neural signals.

A receptor system inside the scala media of the cochlea, it contains hair cells, which convert vibrations to neural signals.

One of the cochlea's fluid-filled chambers, this runs from the apex of the cochlea to the round window to help transmit pressure waves that cause the basilar membrane to vibrate.

One of the cochlea's fluid-filled chambers, this runs from the oval window to the apex of the cochlea. The ossicles cause the fluid in this chamber to vibrate, causing vibration in the basilar membrane.

One of the cochlea's fluid-filled chambers, this contains the Organ of Corti.

When the fluid in the scala vestibuli ripples, it causes ripples/vibrations in this structure, which causes hair cells on it to send action potentials, converting the sound waves to neural signals and encoding them based on frequency. Lower frequency sounds are encoded near the apex of this structure, while higher frequency sounds are encoded near the base.

What theory states that pitch is determined by the location of activated hair cells on the basilar membrane?

What theory states that the frequency of a sound is encoded in the rate of firing of hair cells, often with multiple cells working together through phase-locking/the volley principle?

When nerve fibers fire in bursts at or near the peak of a sine wave stimulus, in phase with the wave.

What is tonotopic organization in the auditory system?

Human cochleas have one row of these cells, they provide the brain with signals about sounds.

These cells in the cochlea convey information to the brain about the mechanical state of the basilar membrane and allow the brain to continually modify the stiffness of parts of the basilar membrane.

A sloping brush of tiny hairs on hair cells, these form a bridge from the hair cell and basilar membrane to the tectorial membrane. When the basilar membrane ripples, these hairs bend, opening an ion channel that lets K+ and Ca2+ into the hair cell and depolarizing it.

These connect the tips of adjacent stereocilia. When stereocilia bend, pressure is put on these, leading to the opening of ion channels.

A gel-like structure above the organ of Corti, this has stereocilia embedded in it.

This type of fiber in the vestibulocochlear nerve makes up about 95% of the fibers in it, it conveys action potentials from the hair cells to the brain, giving the brain perceptions of sounds.

This type of fiber in the vestibulocochlear nerve allows the brain to control the inner hair cells' responsiveness.

This type of fiber in the vestibulocochlear nerve conveys info about the mechanical state of the basilar membrane to the brain.

This type of fiber in the vestibulocochlear nerve allows the brain to continually modify the stiffness of parts of the basilar membrane, leading to sharpened tuning and pronounced amplification.

This nerve is also known as Cranial Nerve VIII, it contacts the bases of hair cells and is made up of 30,000-50,000 auditory axons from the cochlea, most of which go to the brain.

This dorsal pathway recognizes what a sound is, it only needs information from one ear.

This ventral pathway uses information from both ears to localize a sound.

This binaural cue can help localize a sound by comparing the intensity of the sound in both ears.

This binaural cue can help localize a sound by comparing a sound's time of arrival in both ears.

The difference between when both ears hear the beginning of the sound.

A continuing mismatch in a sound's time of arrival (after the beginning of the sound).

This part of the brain measures the interaural temporal differences to help localize sounds.

This part of the brain measures interaural intensity differences to help localize sounds.

Sound with frequencies below 20 Hz

Sound with frequencies above 20,000 Hz

The hills and valleys of our ears amplify/diminish some frequencies depending on the angle at which sound strikes the external ear or the elevation of sound.

This brain region integrates binaural and spectral cues for sound localization.

After going to the inferior colliculi, sound information goes to this part of the thalamus, where it will later go to several auditory cortical areas.

A type of hearing loss where the ear fails to convert sound vibrations into waves of fluid in the cochlea. A common cause of this is the ossicles fusing together.

A type of hearing loss where the organ of Corti and the hair cells fail to convert ripples in the basilar membrane into action potentials. This can be genetic, or caused by drugs or infections, but is often caused by permanent damage to hair cells after listening to too many loud noises.

A constant ringing in the ears, often caused by listening to too many loud noises.

A type of hearing loss where auditory brain regions are damaged and can't process action potentials, often due to strokes, tumors, or traumatic injuries.

A lifelong inability to discern tunes or sing due to subtly abnormal connectivity between the primary auditory cortex and regions of the right frontal lobe for pitch discrimination.

A solution to sensorineural deafness where a device sends data about sounds directly to nerve fibers in the cochlea.

A phenomenon used by bats and somewhat humans where sound waves can be used to tell us if an object is coming toward us or away from us.

An auditory illusion that creates the impression of a constantly ascending pitch.

How does a missing fundamental affect the pitch/timbre of a sound?

The structures that adjourn the cochlea and help us with hearing and balance.

The 3 canals of the vestibular system, each in a different dimension (pitch, yaw, roll).

How do taste receptor cells on the papillae work?

These can be found on the walls of the papillae, each containing 50-150 taste receptor cells.

The bumps on one's tongue.

Action potentials for each sense are carried through separate dedicated nerves, so the brain recognizes the signals from each sense as distinct. What is the term for this?

These touch receptors only respond to vibrations of over 200 cycles per second, they detect vibrations and pressure and are phasic.

These touch receptors help us perceive the form of an object by responding to changes in stimuli and can detect localized movements between the skin and a surface (grip control). They are phasic.

These touch receptors help us perceive forms of objects, they are responsive to edges and isolated points on a surface. They are tonic.

These touch receptors detect stretching of patches of skin during movement. They are tonic.

These touch receptors detect pain, itch, and temperature stimuli. They are tonic.

These receptors detect changes in temperature on the surface of the skin relative to body temperature.

A progressive decrease in a receptor's response to sustained information.

Receptors that use sensory adaptation.

Receptors that don't use sensory adaptation.

How touch signals are sent up the spinal cord: the axon goes up to the medulla, synapses at the medulla, and is then sent to the contralateral side of the body (starting at the thalamus, then the somatosensory cortex).

How pain signals are sent up the spinal cord: the axon synapses in the dorsal part of the spinal cord, then the info is sent to the contralateral side before the axon goes to the thalamus.

The ability to distinguish two nearby touch points on the skin as separate stimuli rather than one. This is tested on different parts of the body and typically the strongest in sensitive parts like the lips, fingers, etc.

A discrete band of skin innervated by a particular spinal dorsal root.

Why do we have quick reflexes to painful stimuli (eg touching a hot stove)?

A technique to measure the electrical activity of muscles.

Pain receptors, free nerve endings specialized to detect damage.

What brain regions do pain signals initially get sent to?

How does the somatosensory cortex help us process pain?

How does the prefrontal cortex help us process pain?

How does the insula help us process pain?

How does the amygdala help us process pain?

What are the differences between A delta fibers and C fibers?

When people with amputated limbs experience pain in the area where the limb was.

A cure to phantom limb pain, this tricks patients into thinking they have control of the missing limb using mirrors.

When you still feel pain after an injury has healed, this is a maladaptive form of neuroplasticity where neurons continue to signal pain when it is no longer helpful.

A theory about pain that gates in the spinal cord are what allow the pain signal to be perceived, closing these gates can provide pain relief.

Greek word for pain relief

A pain management strategy where one believes they will receive pain medication, in some people this causes the release of endorphins (endogenous opioids), which provide pain relief.

This pain management strategy alters the brain's perception of the pain.

This is a factor that can cause both the release of endogenous opioids and another system (likely endocannabinoids) to cause pain relief.

This type of drug can cause pain relief by binding to opioid receptors in the periaqueductal gray and spinal cord.

This drug can block pain signals in the spinal cord.

These drugs can block chemical inflammatory signals at the site of injury.

This drug acts in nociceptor endings, the spinal cord, and brain to block pain signals.

Mild electrical stimulation applied around an injury site, it can block or alter pain signals by releasing endogenous opioids.

A needle-based method of pain relief with placebo-like effects.

Pain inhibition that starts in the periaqueductal gray, it electrically activates endogenous opioids.

What did UW researchers find about VR games and pain management?

What is the condition where one can't feel pain?

The body's ability to sense what is happening inside the body.

What are the five tastants?

When mice were genetically modified so their bitter (T2R) taste receptors were expressed in cells that normally detect sweet tastes, then given a bitter tasting compound, what happened?

When the brain tracks a specific stimulus through the behavior patterns of many neurons.

The basic detection of chemical stimuli while tasting (1 of the 5 tastes)

The interpretation of taste, smell, temperature, texture, etc to create flavor.

People whose tongues have more papillae than average. These people are more sensitive to sweet and bitter tastes.

These neurons pick up smell signals, they can regenerate even in adulthood. They have one dendrite with branches (cilia) containing olfactory receptor proteins, a thin unmyelinated axon, and synapse in the olfactory bulb.

This part of the brain gets signals about smell, contains glomeruli, and sends signals to parts of the brain such as the hippocampus, amygdala, and prepyriform cortex.

A part of the nasal cavities which is lined with a sheet of cells.

A bony part separating the nasal cavities from the brain, it has small holes to the axons of olfactory neurons can pass through.

Also known as the primary olfactory cortex, this is where smells are identified.

A spherical clump of neurons in the olfactory bulb, this receives inputs from an olfactory neuron with the same receptor protein, after getting a signal it sharpens neural activity associated with corresponding odorants. These are organized topographically.

How do we localize smells (via 2 nostrils)?

Odor blindness

This organ can detect pheremones, though it is either old and insignificant or absent in humans.

A chemical signal released by one individual that affects the behavior or physiology of another member of the same species.