Unit 2

when the genotype of the mother directly determines the phenotype of the offspring. Genotype of the offspring does not directly govern the phenotype

Cells that are surrounded by maternal somatic cells that provide these cells nutrients in Maternal inheritance

Maternal cells that provide maturing oocytes nutrients in maternal inheritance

The study of modifications that occur to a gene or chromosome that alters gene expression but is not permanent over the course of many generations and is reversible and doesn't change the DNA sequence

The phenomenon in which the level of expression of many genes on the sex chromosome is similar in both sexes even though males and females have different complements of sex chromosomes

The process of equalizingthe expression of x-linked genes by randomly turning off one X chromosome in the somatic cells of females

A highly condensed structure in the interphase nuclei of somatic cells in female mammals that was not found in male mammals

A hypothesis that explains dosage compensation as the pattern of x-chromosome inactivation seen in mammals where initially both x-chromosomes are active but later one of the two is inactivated

A group of genetically identical cells derived from a single cell

Genes located on chromosomes that are in the cell nucleus

The inheritance of genetic material that is not found within the cell nucleus like the mitochondria and chloroplasts which are found in cytoplasm

Darkly staining region that contains several copies of the genetic material (chromosomes) of mitochondria, chloroplasts, or bacteria

Typically chronic degenerative disorders affecting cells that require high levels of ATP such as nerve and muscle cells. Follow a maternal inheritance pattern

The DNA found within chloroplasts

Occurs when the chloroplasrs are inherited only through the cytoplasm of the egg

A condition in which a cell has a variation in a particular type of organelle. Important factor of mitochondrial disease.

Describes a symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont actually lives inside the host

Theory that suggests the origin of chloroplasts was initiated when cyanobactria took up residence within a primordial eukaryotic cell and the origin of mitochondria comes from purple bacteria taking up residence

DNA contains genetic information, DNA is replicated, DNA is translated into RNA, mRNA is translated to guide the construction of polypeptides

When a normal cell is converted into a malignant cell

DNA and RNA first discovered by Friedrich Miescher

A phosphate group, a pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base

The sugar found in DNA

The sugar found in RNA

A type of nitrogenous base that has a double ring structure, Adenine and Guanine

A type of nitrogenous base that has a single-ring structure, Thymine, Cytosine, and Uracil

A structure of a sugar attached to a base pair

A linkage where the 3' carbon, connected to a nucleotide, is linked with phosphate group of a 5' carbon

Made of negatively charged phosphates and sugar molecules that bases project from in a DNA or RNA strand

The idea that in DNA the amount of A and T are equal and the amount of G and C are equal

Scientist who performed x-ray diffraction techniques with DNA and discovered that DNA was helical, had more than one strand, and had 10 bp per complete turn

The orientation of base pairs in which the flat sides of the bases are facing each other in DNA

Either strand of DNA that is used to synthesize a complementary strand of DNA or RNA, also called the antisense strand

The two newly made strands of DNA after DNA replication

The site on a chromosome where DNA synthesis begins. Only one in bacteria.

The synthesis of new daughter strands is initiated in this direction

The region where the parental DNA strands have separated and new daughter strands are being made

DNA replication begins with the binding of this protein to sequences within the origin of replication.

Sequences within the lrigin of replication that proteins bind to in order to begin DNA replication

Sites that help regulate DNA replication

Following the separation of the AT-rich region, an enzyme breaks the hydrogen bonds between the two DNA strands to separate them into single strands

Protein that synthesizes RNA primers typically 10-12 nucleotides long

Short strands of RNA synthesized during DNA replication by the linkage of ribonucleotides via enzyme primase

Enzymes that synthesizes a daughter strand of DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction because the 3' end has the hydroxyl group

Protein that covalently links the okazaki fragments together during DNA replication

The strand during DNA replication where only one RNA primer is made at the origin

The strand during DNA replication where multiple RNA primers are made and is synthesized as short okazaki fragments

Shortbsegments of DNA that are synthesized to produce the lagging strand during DNA replication

Stops the movement of the replication forks when Tus binds

Specialized repeated sequences found at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes at the 3' overhang region that is 12-16 nucleotides long

An enzyme discovered by Carl Greider and Elizabeth Blackburn that prevent chromosome shortening by recognizing the sequences at the end of eukaryotic chromosomes and synthesizes additional repeats of those sequences.

Phase 1 of telomere lengthening where telomerase binds to the 3' overhang region

Phase 2 of telomere lengthening where telomerase synthesizes a 6-nucleotide repeat

Phase 3 of telomere lengthening where telomerase moves 6 nucleotides to the right and begins to make another repeat

The loss of the ability of cells to divide because telomeres are too short

At the molecular level, a segment of DNA used to make a functional product either and RNA or a polypeptide (protein)

The process of the copying of a DNA sequence into an RNA sequence

The overall process in which the information within a gene is used to produce a functional product

Also called structural genes. Encode the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide

Product of a protein-coding gene whose sequence determines the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide during translation

Process where a polypeptie is produced using the information in mRNA

Becomes part of a functional protein that contributes to an organism's traits

DNA sequence that provides a site for RNA polymerase to bind that is just upstream of the site where transcription of a gene actually begins. Usually between the -35 and -10 sequence in bacteria.

Specifies the end of transcription

The nontemplate strand, or sense strand, of DNA that has the same sequence as the transcribed mRNA that encodes a polypeptide

Controls the rate of transcription by binding directly to promoters and recognizing regulatory sequences. Recognizes the promoter by recognizing specific sequences of base pairs in DNA

Short stretches of DNA involved in the regulation of transcription

A short sequence within the mRNA of bacteria that has a complementary sequence in ribosomal RNA that provides a location for a ribosome to bind and begin transcription

A group of 3 nucleotides in mRNA that contain the information for polypeptide's sequence

A three-base sequence in mRNA that initiates translation. It is usually 5′-AUG-3′ and encodes methionine in eukaryotes or formylmethionine in bacteria.

A three-base sequence in mRNA that signals the end of translation of a polypeptide. Can be 5′–UAA–3′, 5′–UAG–3′, and 5′–UGA–3′

The first stage of transcription where RNA polymerase binds to the promoter and denatures the DNA into an open complex

The second stage of transcription where RNA polymerase slides along the DNA in an open complex to synthesize RNA

The third stage of transcription where a terminator is reached that causes RNA polymerase and RNA transcript to dissociate from the DNA

An enzyme that synthesizes a strand of RNA using a DNA strand as a template in the 5' to 3' direction

The region of separation of two DNA strands produced by RNA polymerase during transcription.

The first nucleotide in a gene where transcription begins and is denoted as +1

The most commonly occuring bases within a specific type of sequence

Upstream of where the promoter binds whose consensus sequence is TTGACA in Bacteria

Downstream of where the promoter binds who consensus sequence is TATAAT in bacteria.

an enzyme composed of 5 subunits and is the part of RNA polymerase that does the transcription. Only in Bacteria.

A part of the RNA polymerase holoenzyme that helps RNA polymerase find the promoter. Functions as a transcription factor. Only found in bacteria.

An enzyme containing all of the functional subunits when the core enzyme combines with the sigma factor

a structure found in sigma factor proteins that promotes tighter binding to the DNA

The binding of the RNA polymerase to the promoter forms this complex in DNA

An RNA binding protein responsible for terminating transcription in bacteria.

bacterial Termination process involving rho protein that requires a rut site component in the DNA and a termination site component.

A site in DNA that encodes a sequence of RNA that acts as a recognition site in the binding of Rho protein in rho dependent termination

bacterial Transcription termination that does not require the ρ (rho) protein

Transcribes all of the genes for ribosomal RNA except for the 5S rRNA

Transcribes all protein encoding genes and is responsible for the synthesis of all mRNA, transcribes some snRNA genes needed for splicing

Transcribes all of the tRNA genes and the 5S rRNA gene and also transcribes microRNA genes

Short DNA sequence that is necessary for transcription to take place in eukaryotes and typically consists of a TATA box and the transcriptional start site

A TATAAA sequence in the core promoter that is usually 25 bp upstream from the transcriptional start site that determines the precise starting point of transcription

When the core promoter in eukaryotes is missing a TATA Box and produces a low level of transcription

What are the three categories of proteins required for basal transcription to occur at the promoter?

Activating DNA sequences needed to stimulate transcription. cis-acting.

DNA sequences that are recognized by transcription factors that inhibit transcription. cis-acting.

A regulatory sequence of DNA such as TATA box, enhancers, and silencers that are found within the same chromosome as the genes they regulate

Regulatory transcription factors that bind to cis-acting elements that may be far away or on a different chromosome than the gene they control.

5 different proteins needed for RNA Polymerase II to initiate transcription of protein-encoding genes

Consists of RNA polymerase II and the five general transcription factors needed for basal transcription

the correspondence between the sequence of codons in the DNA coding strand and the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.

Regions contained within functional mRNA that have coding sequences found within them

Sequences found between exons

Made during transcription and corresponds with the entire gene sequence that was transcribed that later has its introns removed and exons connected in order to create a mature mRNA

The removal of introns and connecting of exons on RNA. Common in eukaryotes and occurs occasionally in bacteria

A modification that may occur in RNA where a large RNA transcript is cleaved into smaller pieces and one or more of those smaller pices becomes a functional RNA molecule

A modification that may occur in RNA where a m7G cap is attached to the 5' end of mRNA which plays a role in intron splicing, the exit of mRNA from the nucleus, and the binding of mRNA to the ribosome

A modification that may occur in RNA where a string of adenine-contianing nucleotides is attached to the 3' end of mRNA at a site where the mRNA is cleaved

A modification that may occur in RNA where the base sequence of RNA is changed after it's been transcribed

A modification that may occur in RNA where the base within an RNA molecule is modified covalently

an organelle within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells where the assembly of ribosomal subunits occurs.

an enzyme that digests an RNA or DNA strand from the end by cleaving the covalent bond between two nucleotides at either the 5' or 3' end of a strand

an enzyme that can cleave a bond between adjacent nucleotides within a DNA or RNA strand.

An RNA molecule with catalytic activity

A type of intron found in self-splicing RNA that uses free guanosine in its splicing mechanism

A type of intron found in self-splicing RNA that uses an adenine nucleotide within the intron itself in its splicing mechanism.

Splicing that does not require the aid of other catalysts, includes Group I and Group II splicing

A complex that aids in the splicing of eukaryotic pre-mRNAs

subunits of a spliceosome that consists of small nuclear RNA and a set of proteins

The phenomenon that a pre-mRNA can be spliced in more than one way which generates mature mRNAs with different combinations of exons. Allows oraganisms to carry fewer genes in its genome yet have large polypeptide diversity

A string of adenine nucleotides