ANS 2140: Unit 2

2 main parts of the nervous system

the central nervous system consists of the ______ and _____ ______

the control center of the nervous system, recieves signals, makes decisions, sends signals out

part of the nervous system that functions to gather information and carry out instructions

2 parts of the peripheral nervous system

peripheral nervous system - gathers information, eg detecting temperature

the sensory division of the peripheral nervous system sends signals straight to the _________ _________ _________

peripheral nervous system - performs actions directed by CNS

2 parts of the motor division of the peripheral nervous system

part of the motor division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary actions

part of the motor division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary actions

2 parts of the autonomic system

part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for fight or flight response

part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for conserving energy (rest and digest)

2 types of nerve cells

________ are the cells responsible for carrying signals

___________ are the cells that provide nutrients and structure to nerve cells

most common neuroglia - takes up neurotransmitters, provides nutrients, found in central nervous system

type of neuroglia - wraps around axon to provide insulation, found in central nervous system

oligodendrocytes are found in the _______ _______ ________

type of neuroglia - serves as insulation for axon, found in peripheral nervous system

schwann cells are found in the __________ ________ ___________

biosynthetic region of neuron, receptive region for signals

branches that extend from the cell body of the neuron
interact with other neurons and recieve signals

part of the neuron that propogates signal to the next cell

junction between the soma and the axon - where signal accumulates

part of axon that contains secretory vessels and signaling molecules

the spaces between schwann cells/oligodendrocytes are called _______ ________ _____

3 properties of neurons

property of neuron - ability to recieve a signal and respond to change

property of neuron - ability to produce electrochemical gradient to conduct signal

property of neuron - ability to send signal to the next cell

neurons send signals using _______ _________

neurotransmitter binds to channel, causing it to open

changes in pressure cause channel to open

membrane around channel changes voltage, changes in membrane potential cause channel to open

resting membrane potential is ___mV

sodium and chloride are found ________ of the plasma membrane

potassium ions are found ________ of the plasma membrane

proteins inside of the axon have a _________ charge, which exceeds the charge of the ____________ ions in the axon

1

2

3

4

5

magnitude or intensity that must be exceeded for a certain reaction, phenomenon, result, or condition to occur or be manifested

membrane potential becomes less negative
fast voltage-gated Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to enter axon

decline in membrane potential
slow voltage-gated K+ channels open, allowing K+ to leave axon
fast voltage-gated Na+ channels inactivated

more negative membrane potential
Na+/K+ ATPase pumps allow K+ to reenter cell and Na+ to leave
reactivation of fast voltage-gated Na+ channels

brief period of time after action potential where cell cannot stimulate another action potential

where a second action potential can occur but stimulus has a larger threshold due to being in hyperpolarization stage

the propogation of an action potential starts at the _____ __________

true/false: an action potential signal does not decay over time

myelinated axons have a faster speed of __________

in myelinated axons, the strength of the action potential is restored at the _________ __ __________

oligodendrocytes connect to/myelinate ______ ______

schwann cells connect to/myelinate _____ _____

functional connection between a neuron and another cell

these use a chemical (neurotransmitter) to send signals

these use an electrochemical gradient to send signals

the neuron that sends the signal

the neuron that recieves the signal

axon terminals of the pre-synaptic neuron signals to the dendrites of the post-synaptic neuron

axon terminals of the pre-synaptic neuron signals to the soma of the post-synaptic neuron

axon terminals of the pre-synaptic neuron signals to the axon or axon terminal of the post-synaptic neuron

signaling pathway:
_______ _______ travels down ___________ _________ to the ______ _________
voltage-gated _______ channels open, allowing _______ to enter the axon terminal
________ binds to ___________ _________, causing ____________ filled vessels to move to and fuse with the ______ _________
vessels release ____________ into ________ ______ via _____________

________ _________ can have varying strength of responses (weak to strong, not all or nothing)

method of removal of neurotransmitters from synaptic cleft - ________ of neurotransmitters by the ___________ neuron

method of removal of neurotransmitters from synaptic cleft - _________ of neurotransmitters by ________ in the synaptic cleft

method of removal of neurotransmitters from synaptic cleft - ___________ of neurotransmitters away from the ___________

skeletal muscle is ________, under _________ control, and _______________

skeletal muscle ________ rapidly and ________ easily

cardiac muscle is _________, found in the _______ ______, is under __________ control, and is _________________

smooth muscle is ___ _________, is under ___________ control, is found in ________ _______, and is _________________

functions of muscle

characteristic of muscle - able to respond to electrical signal

characteristic of muscle - ablility to share signal with the rest of muscle fibers

characteristics of muscle - ability to move and return to resting state

cells growing in number (cell division)
typically occurs before birth/hatch

increase in cell size
formation of myotubules and muscle fibers

myotubule matures into _________ _______ ______

membrane that surrounds the whole muscle

the grain of the meat is the _______

the membrane that surrounds the fasicle is the ___________

membrane between individual muscle fibers

muscle fibers are surrounded by the __________

the sarcolemma is similar to a plasma membrane, but it also has the ability to ___________ ___________ _____________

this holds calcium ions in muscle fibers along with performing ER tasks

a triad is composed of 2 _______ _________ and 1 _________ ____________

the terminal cistern is responsible for __________ _________ ____

the transverse tubule connects the ____________ with the ___________ _____________, also helps with communication

organelles that store glycogen

make up 80% of the muscle fiber, make up myofilaments

the 2 types of myofilaments are _____ and ________

actin is _____ and myosin is ______

functional unit of the muscle fiber - regions that contract and relax

response of a muscle to a single, brief threshold stimulus

a muscle twitch is a _______ __________

the three phases of a muscle twitch

brief delay of approximately 1-2 milliseconds between the stimulus and the onset of muscle contraction, during which the muscle prepares for contraction

1 neuron can engage with multiple different _______ _______

when another stimulus is applied before the muscle relaxes completely, resulting in more tension

temporal summation results in __________ __________

occurs at high stimulus frequencies, no relaxation at all between stimulus

the strength of a muscle contraction can be increased by recruiting more _______ _________

graded muscle responses are influenced by the _________ and ________ of the stimulus

neurotransmitter that crosses synaptic cleft to bind to ligand-gated ion channels
creates action potential down the sarcolemma

actetylcholine binds to ________-gated ion channels and causes an ______ of ______ ions, creating a wave of ______________

the action potential generated by acteylcholine travels to the _________ and is funneled down, causing _______ ________ to open, releasing _______ into the __________
this is known as ______________________ ________

______ has club-head structures that allow interactions with _____

the two types of regulatory proteins found on actin

________ is the calcium binding site on actin

____________ is long and thread-like, covers active sites on actin

myosin uses club-head structures to pull actin, causing them to ______ past each other

true/false: myosin moves when interacting with actin

calcium that has flooded the sarcoplasm will bind to ________, which causes _________ to shift away and uncover the active sites on _____, allowing ______ to engage

first step of the coss bridge cycle: actin and myosin are engaged with each other

second step of cross bridge cycle: mysoin head moves actin

third step of cross bridge cycle: ATP binds to myosin in order to separate from actin

fourth step of the cross bridge cycle: myosin head reset and ready to engage with actin again, uses ATP hydrolysis

during muscle _________, nerve stimulus ceases and neurotransmitters are removed

during muscle relaxation, ______ _________ is used to move _______ ions back into terminal cisterns of sarcplasmic reticulum

during muslce relaxation, the removal of calcium ions on ________ causes __________ to cover the binding site on actin

the stiffening of the body after death

rigor mortis occurs when the ___________ _________ deteriorates, causing the release of _______ ions

during rigor morits, the body remains stiff because there is no ___ present for ___________ to occur

during rigor mortis, other _______ eventually break down actin and myosin, which it what causes meat to become ______

method of ATP generation where phosphocreatine donates a phosphate group to ADP
1:1 ratio of ATP production - produces creatine and ATP, short burst of energy (~15 seconds)

method of ATP generation that uses glucose to produce pyruvate and ATP, occurs in the absence of oxygen
pyruvate is converted into lactic acid - fuel for liver, kindeys, and heart
1:2 ratio of ATP production, lasts 30-40 seconds

method of ATP generation that occurs in the presence of oxygen
pyruvate goes through krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
1:36-38 ratio of ATP production - most efficient and lasts the longest
uses glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids

during a muscle contration, ATP is used during the __________ step of the cross-bridge cycle, when pumping ________ ions into the SR via ______ _________, and when pumping ________ ions out and _________ ions into the sarcolemma

skeletal functions

true/false: the skeletal system is responsible for movement

the two main minerals of the skeletal system

this process occurs in red bone marrow, forms blood cells

yellow bone marrow contains __________ cells

in the skeletal system, fat is stored in ______ ____ ______

in the skeletal system, ___________ regulates insulin and energy homeostasis

this includes the cranium, vertebral column, and ribcage

this includes upper and lower limbs, shoulders, hips, wings, etc
bones that are associated with movement

most abundant type of cartilage
found in joints, sternum, larynx, nose
provides structure but not overly rigid

cells that excrete collagen, found in cartilage

similar to hyaline but more stretchy
found in external ear and epiglottis
areas with lots of repeating binding occcuring

similar to hyaline but more stretchy
found in external ear and epiglottis
areas with lots of repeating binding occcuring

alternating rows of cells and thick cartilage
absorb shock/impact
found in knees, hock, vertebral column

the inorganic parts of bone provide _______ and are composed of ______________

the organic component of bone include ____________ and _____________, providing _______ _________

either end of the bone - on top of the growth

middle portion of the bone - through the growth

where the epiphysis meets the diaphysis - forms after growth has finished

portion of the bone where growth is actively occurring

bird bones are _________, meaning air sacs are found within them

ture/false: bird bones are hollow

type of bone that has a thick area where calcium is stored

functional unit of the skeletal system

the ________ ______ of the osteon contains neurons and blood vessels

part of the osteon that contains cells that monitor bone health (appear as small dark dots)

type of cell found in bone - mitotically active stem cell

the __________ cell can differentiate into osteoblasts, osteocytes, and bone lining cells

type of cell found in bone - bone-building/matrix-synthesizing cell

osteoblasts secrete _______, which includes glycoproteins, proteoglycans, and collagen
these make up the bone matrix that gives structure to the bone

after the bone matrix is established, _____________ can occur

type of cell found in bone - found in the lacunae and monitors bone health, maintains bone matrix

the osteocyte monitors ________ and _________ __________

type of cell found in bone - similar to the osteocyte but found in non-active areas (outer parts of the bone)

type of cell found in bone - bone cutting cell
reduces bone mass by secreting calcium from the bone

bone growth is _________

2 types of bone formation

development and formation of bones using hyaline cartilage
applies to most bones except flat bones

bone formation that uses fibranous proteins as backbone for flat bones (clavicle and cranium)

2 types of bone remodeling

parathyroid hormone recruits osteoclast to bone, releasing calcium from the bone (cutting)

bone remodeling that uses osteoblasts to build new bone

two types of directional growth in bones

bone growth that occurs until max length is reached and epiphyseal plate becomes epiphyseal line

bone growth that changes the width/density of the bone - can still occur after puberty

lengthening of the bone - where growth occurs

lengthening of the bone - area closest to epiphysis, where non-active cells are found

lengthening of the bone - where cartilage cells/chondrocytes undergo mitosis

lengthening of the bone - where older chondrocytes increase cell size

lengthening of the bone - where chondrocytes die and leave behind calcified areas (matrix calcifiers)
osteoclasts and osteoblasts recruited

lengthening of the bone - area where new bone forms

________ ____ states that bones adapt their structure and strength in response to the mechanical loads placed upon them (use it or lose it concept)

parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, GH, IGF1, and reproductive hormones are all ____________ ___________ of the skeletal system