Perception-noNames

example of dots and xs, some of the principles work against others in context, like if you were to place the dot and x closer together, it takes more time to trace the line for continuation, the proximity works against the continuation principle

blood vessels behind the retina grow behind the macula (central part of retina allowing for fine detail vision) leading to blood flow and leakage between the neural retina and retinal pigment epithelium (rpe), or between the rpe and burch's membrane
causes rapid difficulty seeing faces, driving, or close up work, dimmness, waves on straight lines, or blank and blurry spots
early detection to treat with anti-vascular injections

high viscosity fluid filling the eyeball

a pictorial representation of data or concepts, intended to convey information or aid in decision making

researchers use induced perceptual errors in the form of geometric visual ilusions to test to see if incorrect hypotheses can influence the perceptual landscape

sight

balance

object detection and recognition--> stop signs red, tennis balls bright yellow
scene segmentation--> uses the fact that objects are usually one color separate from other objects and background color
health and mating--> peacock tails, jaundice

the surroundings a creature perceives from whatever information is available from its senses

no SWS (blue pigment) prevents comparison of blue and yellow, very rare

cones allow us to see details as well as color, using preferential cones for red, green, and blue

processes that alter sensory responses based on knowledge of the situation/context

temperature

Occurs when a female has a father that is protanomalous or deuteranomalous and a normal mother leading to four photopigments (one normal LWS and MWS, one normal SWS, and one abnormal LWS or MWS depending on the deficiency of the father), most of the time the abnormal photopigment is nonfunctional (painter with this claimed she could see 100 million colors)

the demands and standards a certain culture places on itsmembers that can cause brain changes (like string players) or their eyes

a shiny structure in the back of the eye behind the retina in certain species like cats and dogs that reflects light so that when photons enter the eye, ones that are not captured by the photoreceptors in the retina are reflected back through and have a chance of being captured by photoreceptors on the way out
Advantage: allows for better visual acquity in the dark, advantageous for nocturnal predators

the tendency for those parts of an object centered on an axis to be very similar in shape, color, texture, across the axis

muscle running from the top of the eye to the orbit responsible for the eyes upward movements

-Super reognizer: someone who never forgets a face, even if they see it once and then again years later, someone who can deduce a profile even just be getting a frontal snap shot, including children, other ethnicities and races, and even with only eyes (pandemic)
-2 percent of population
-unusual spikes of activity when they see a face they recognize, higher baseline
-unseful in police work like Andrew Pope who correctly identified 2,000 suspects, but in the US people arent being screened and tested that way, especially in riot situations, super recognizer identified many while the computer software only did one

color mixing in which the distribution of wavelenghts that resemble "blue, red, yellow" that cancels out part of the distribution that recieved by photoreceptors, tends towards black, common with paint and printers

when both eyes do not converge so there are two images being processed by the brain, leads to amblyopia

an agent, action, or condition that elicit or accelerates a physiological or psychological process, activity, or response

1. collect the data or information about the concept
2. organize the data logically
3. think about the perception of the data
4. create the visualization
5. evaluate for any perceptive errors
6. repeat

like netflix's algorithm, the human mind walks a tightrope of not forgetting all of the previous experiences while taking in and processing new information

touch

fraction whose numerator is test distance and denominator is distanc at optotype can read the size (eye chart test) distance you stand at the read it/ distance the average person stands at to read it

gray looks lighter next to a black background rather than a white background becuase of center surround processing and lateral inhibition

neurons with separate on and off regions (on detects white bars on gray, off detects black bars on gray)

cone type that is most sensitive to short wavelengths, with a peak around 420 nm, is much less sensitive, fewer, none in the fovea , on the long arm of chromosome 7, and has a different opsin

process of using a different sense to replace for the lack of another (typically vision)

specialized neurons that respond to certain types of stimuli

when sensory receptors detect sensory information/ neural response to a change in the environment

vision in dim lighting, driven by rods

Hard outer eye layer

repid jerk-like movements of the eyes between fixation points, that allow smaller objects to be processed by the eye

Photoreceptor responsible for night vision, more light sensitive, with lower visual sharpness

cases where patients with scotomas can detect moving stimuli inside that scotoma, somewhat explained in the activation of +hMT with moving stimuli

Where on the retina photons fall, which is preserved throughout the system because of its relationship to the visual field

neurons with receptive fields close together in visual space that have cell bodies close together in the cortex
spatially conserved with both simple and complex neurons

sheet of photoreceptors in the back of the eye

the ratio between the responses of certain cones that gives information about the wavelength of each light, reegardless of the itensity of the stimuli, eliminating the ambiguity associated with a monochromatic eye

Includes: reflectance (light reflected off a surface/amount of light hitting the surface), light tends to come from above, objects and events tend to be compact in space, moving objects obey laws of motion, etc.

reflection (the wavelengths of light reflected by a surface)
absorption (the wavelengths of light absorbed by a surface)
transmission (the wavelengths of light that pass through an option)

Hue(category of colors, like blue, red, yellow, driven by the wavelength composition of light on the retina), Brightness(lightness of a color driven by the number of photons absorbed, the intensity of the light), Saturation(the paleness or vividness of the color, mainly driven by the purity of the light (monochromat n=means very small range of wavelengths, broadband is a large variety of wavelengths))

color allows creatures and things to be easier to detect (sporting equipment), recognize (through memory), or even diagnose (jaundice) conditions

seeing is not just the pattern of light on the retina, it is dependent upon environment and knowing what is where

Hole through which light enters the eye

physical energy as it impinges on the sensory receptor

no LWS (red pigment) prevents comparison of red and green, makes red look darker, common in men less in women

when recombination of OPN1LW and OPN1MW (due to 98% identical amino acids encoded) results in an abnormal LWS that has a spectral sensitivity that is shifted toward the spectral sensitivity of the MWS

-describes his inability to recognize faces except of Jonathan and Eric his best friends by their defining features, red hair and bushy eyebrows. Also poor sense of direction, had to take the same route or he would be lost , espcially out of context like his psychiatrist, or his house when on a walk with his nephew, the route to his work, not recognizing his assistant Kate, saying excuse me to his own reflection, or mistaking a person in a window as his reflection, Francisco the artist he intereviewed and couldn't describe
-both him and one brother have prosopagnosia: the inability to recognize faces even when they are familiar, other two brothers and father do not have it, mother may
-Jane Goodall had mild case, unable to recognize chimps she wasn't close with, as well as unfamiliar people, she had to "look for a mole"
-Man who mistook his wife for a hat--> could not recognize faces, expressions, categorize objects, or places, recieves a letter fomr Anne F. saying she can recognize voices like a super recognizer, but not her own husbands face in unfamiliar contexts, has no topographical map of space

body position

what objects should be what college

refractive error that is associated with age, worsening ability to focuse up close, caused by the lens hardening , treatment of a bifocal lens for those with refractive errors

where an optical illusion causes a phantom retinal impression of a previously present stimulus in accurate colors

Belief/Takeaway: the cave is the visual, perceptive world, and is filtered through their senses
Sekuler's comment: analogous to the people in the cave, our senses filter our world view through their properties, and in order the understand the way we see we must understand what we see with

periods in which the visual system is vulnerable to abnormalities or changes in the environment (multiple periods for different facets of the visual system that develop at different time points)

pigmented layer of cells behind the retina that replenishes colored eye pigments

vision in good lighting, driven by more cones than scoptopic

type of molecule that undergoes a conformational change in the presence of photons, rhodopsin (rods) melanopsin, and photopsin

smallest amount of light generated

earlier stimuli can influence the likelihood of a similar perceptual response to later stimuli, regardless of accuracy

everything that allows sensory signals to be used for inference about the properties of objects and events in the world

found in upper four layers of lgn
recieves information from midget ganglion cells
slower processing than magnocellular cells
preserves color information

situations in which someone sees a pattern or image of something that does not exist

Classification of rgcs that are large cell bodies, combine information from many photoreceptors (low specificity), are colorblind (do not preserve cone class), and are responsible for transient, moving stimuli processing

The name given to the very same axons that go into the optic chiasm but after they are rearranged and pass through the optic chiasm and go towards the lateral geniculate nucleus

the bundle of axons that is sorted through the lateral geniculate nucleus and heads toward to the primary visual cortex

the myelinated bundle of 1.25 million retinal ganglion cell axons that travel from the optic disc at the back of the eyeball to the optic chiasm

site where each eye's optic nerve axons meet and are rearranged

cones send information to rgcs that comput differents between red and green, blue and yellow, and black and white

-age 65 suffers a concussion in a car accident, which leaves him unable to read for a few days, however now he has extremely sharp distance vision and is completely color blind, everything is black and white
-his symptoms followed a period of transeint amnesia, in which he was confused and unable to read for 5 days, suspected stroke
-the colors had real meaning to him an abstract painter
-knew the names of colors, but could not physically or mentally see the, and experience tonal incongruity, his contrast between shades is increased, shilouettes are sharper
-created a room in shades of gray that was meant to convey what he had been experiencing to others
-lost synesthesia, could see colors with music and now cannot
-yarn test yeilded a gray tonal scale, where white oddly enough looks dingy gray
-turns out his secondary visual cortices were damaged, mainly V4, the blobs and stripes leading to V4 from V1 and V2, possibly due to carbon monoxide poisoning
-used dark green glasses for clarity

smell

pain

Nothing that is in the mind (the intellect) that has not first been through the sense

the point at which (usually in a dichromatic eye) that the response to that very narrow wavelength would produce the same response as to a uniform distribution of light (white light)

-perceptual brain often works similarly to the computer prediction of future word to type, it registered the data of what is and is not typed and uses it to make better predictions in the future
-netflix's algorithm takes into account many variables in personal aspects of their users lives, but also use the watch lists to predict future recommendations. THose watch lists are skewed to recommend more similarly to the more recent titles watched, but at the same time preserves the impact of their previous preferences

where an optical illusion causes a phantom retinal impression of a previously present stimulus in complementary colors

Belief: the physical world actually is just the way it appears to us
Sekuler's comment: entirely wrong, the world can be perceived differently by everyone, and that perception can fluctuate, and is imperfect, in perception, we are baited into thinking that perception is fast and accurate

nearsightedness, objects at a distance blur, caused by abnormal elongation of the eye, placing the refractive corneal image to fall in front of the photoreceptors so that the retinal "image" is blurry, or the optics are too strong, treatment of a concave (-) lens

trackinf multiple objects positions by takinf snbapshots of positions over time, deteriorates with aging, kindergartners

-relative height (things at distance look higher at their base)
-relative size (things at distance look smaller)
-occlusion (objects get in front of other objects)
-shadows (relative size and height)
-texture gradient (textures look finer from a distance)
-atmospheric perspective (things at a distance look hazy

Classification of rgcs that are small cell bodies with small receptive fields, do not combine information from many photoreceptors (high specificity), preserve color information, and process slower stimuli than parasol ganglion cells

same as middle spatial frequency, the spatial scale that processes medium details, processed by neurons with medium sized receptive feilds, such as those around the fovea, but also everywhere by neurons with medium receptive feilds

0.2 mm thick
functions for nutrition, structural support, phagocytosis
vascular tissue
includes the choroid (blood supply), ciliary body (on the sides) , and pigmented iris (in the front)

part of newton's discoveries, when two stimuli that are different phyusically are the same perceptualy, the human eye has millions of these becuase any combination of wavelengths can produce the same response from the three types of cones

cone type that is most sensitive to medium wavelengths, with a peak around 530 nm, is on chromosome x near gene for long wavelength cones

muscle running from the nasal side of the eye to the back of the orbit responsible for rightward movement of the left eye and leftward movement of the right eye

appartent motion (flashes of light very fast to show difference between succession and simultaneous) , one of the 3 big gestlat guildlines contributors

large, includes rods
used for perception of movements, depth, and brightness, located in layers 1 and 2, produces a rapid, transient response

when the visual acquity in one's best eye is worse than 20/60 even with corrective lenses

cone type that is most sensitive to long wavelengths, with a peak around 560 nm, is on chromosome x near gene for medium wavelength cones

comparison of all colors in a scene to normalize perception

1. light travels through the ganglion, bipolar, and amacrine cells
2. photon is absorbed by photopigment (11-cis retinal attached to protein opsin), double bond is excited and rotates in a conformational change to all-trans retinal (200 femtoseconds)
3. electrical state of the photoreceptor changes in a graded response to the amount of photons absorbed and photopigment changed
4.neurotransmitter glutamate is restricted in a graded potential (fewer photons absorbed more glutamate transmitted to bipolar cells) (inversely proportional)
5. bipolar cells electrical state is stimulated in reflection of amount of glutamate received, graded potential of glutamate is released to retinal ganglion cells (proportional)
6. retinal ganglion cells release an action potential to the optic nerve
7. all trans retinal breaks off an opsin, rebends in pigment epithelium, rebinds to opsin in pigment epithelium layer

electromagnetic radiation that interacts with photoreceptors in our eyes 400-700 nm wavelength

Eyelid and conjunctiva (vascular membrane from lid to sclera) that provides lubrication

Flexible layer responsible for 20% of eyes focusing

when the visual acquity in one's best eye is worse than 20/200 even with corrective lenses

muscle running from the temporal side of the eye to the back of the orbit responsible for leftward movement of the left eye and rightward movement of the right eye

layer of the lgn that recieves information from non-m-non-p ganglion in the intralaminar regions

very small, includes cones
used for blue short wave, between M and P layers

movement

likely visual objects, memory of targeted objects, task demands, selective attention, action, learning

Muscular colored tissue around the pupil

The belief that perception and seeing is based on light entering out eye

recognizing that one's knowledge is limited and one's beliefs may be incorrect

0.5 mm thick
functions for sensation and support, sensitivity to light, trapping photons to transform into neural signals
includes the retina, retinal pigment epithelium, neural layer

-ocular media like the lens can be altered by dietary carotenoids and uv damage that results in less mid wavelength light from passing through to the photoreceptors

muscle running from the bottom of the eye to the back of the orbit responsible for the eyes downward movement

can decrease polarization, extremism, and susceptibility to conspiracy theories, and is positively associated with altruism, gratitude, empathy, benevolence, and knowledge acquisition, learning, and education

hemianopia patients can fill in visual stimuli over blind sections of visual field, possibly because it activates the extrastriate visual cortex in +hMT. +hMT takes the functioning of V1 in these patients, with the blood oxygenation level dependent signal is decreased with motion coherence

contains spatial information about light emmited from a surface

farsightedness, close up objects blur, caused by an abnormal shortening of the eye, placing the refractive corneal image behind the photoreceptors so that the retinal "image" is blurry, or the optics are too weak, treatment of a convex (+) lens
eye, placing the refractive corneal image behind the photoreceptors so that the retinal "image" is blurry, or the optics are too weak, treatment of a convex (+) lens

Unit containing a full set of values for all receptive field parameters

red= a red object when seen in daylight against a gray-appearing background, evokes a sensation that most humans would call 'red'

taste

abnormal regulation of interocular pressure, or mechanosensitivity of ocular cells
causes optic nerve degeneration, starts with nasal peripheral vision, degeneration of the retinal ganglion cells
treated with lowering and stabilization of IOP, early detection by detecting pressure build up and preventing flow of aqueous humor

early 20th century idea that composites are able to be broken down into parts, so objects appear the way they do due to the relationships between their parts, so decomposing them destroys the underlying form

objects that tend to be similar in lightness, size, orientation, or other characteristics also tend to be of the same perceptual object

objects that tend to have the same relative orientation or contours also tend to be of the same perceptual object, the more the segments are differnet however, the more difficult they are to identify as part of the same perceptual object (two snakes example)

part of a hollow organ furthest from its opening, pupil=opening and retina=fundus

where light lands on the retina, no photoreceptors, optimized put for acute vision (reading)

-location and orientation are derived
-isurfaces and depth planes form through higher inferential processing, a priori concepts allows one of the pssible configurations to be chosen

same as high spatial frequency, the spatial scale that processes fine details, processed by neurons that have small, high acuity receptive feilds, such as those in the fovea, but also everywhere by neurons with small receptive feilds

The belief that perception and seeing is based off something that leaves our eyes during vision

the uptake in response with a different stimulus after multiple repetitions of a similar stimulus, increases with the number of repetitions of the original stimulus

when the brain processes what has already been learned and prioritizes it to the point that the new information has minimal effect

state of vision in which faraway objects are in sharp focus with the lens in a relaxed state (eyes in perfect length in relation to optic strength)

sinusoidal electric and magnetic fields that are orthogonal to each other, out of phase, and propogated through a vacuum

macula thins because of aging
signalled by pigment disruptions on fundus and yellow drusen (yellow hardened deposits)
causes gradual difficulty seeing faces, driving, or close up work, dimmness, waves on straight lines, or blank and blurry spots
experimental gene therapy

genesis of extra blood vessels induced by poorly managed diabetes which leads to rapid vision loss
treated by prevention and management of diabetes

no MWS (green pigment) prevents comparison of red and green, common in men less in women

when recombination of OPN1LW and OPN1MW (due to 98% identical amino acids encoded) results in an abnormal MWS that has a spectral sensitivity that is shifted toward the spectral sensitivity of the LWS

Objects emit eidola continously that fly towards the eye and are processed the eidola becuase one or more fly into your eye, refuted by the parade example (how do the marchers keep their arrangementP and the mirror example (how do your eidola contort to come back to your eye not facing backwards? )

thumb at arms length is 2 degrees of the visual angle
determined receptive feild cannot be solely genetically determined

it was goliath, not david that would've been disadvantaged in the battle at gath, because Goliath's gigantism is associated with pituitary tumor growth, wich impinges upon the optic chiasm, causing loss of peripheral vision

1. 5-10 minutes rods and cones gradually go to max light sensitivity (called the rod-cone break)
2. 10-30 minutes rods become more sensitive, rhodopsin build up happens to make rods most sensitive cells in the eye
3. 30 minutes 90% dark adapted eye

a device with 53 swaures of varying shades of blue used to measure the sky and sea, oerhaps invented by horace-benedict de saussure

the number of neurons that are responsible for processing the visual stimulus of a given size given where it lies on the retina and the ciaul feild. The fovea makes up a very small portion of the retina and the viual field, and yet a large amount of neurons are used to process information from the fovea, while less are used to process information from th perphery

cornea is responsible for 80% of refraction of light, and has contact with the atmosphere, and is species dependent
Advantage: for fish, their corneas are very different than the properties of water (which allows them to see properly underwater) and very similar to the properties of air (which causes extreme blurring when out of water). The opposite is true for humans, our corneal properties are very different than air (which allows us to see in air) and very similar to water which causes the cornea to be unable to refract properly, more like a pane of glass than mirrors, causing blurriness.

Nerve ending for pain, touch, temperature, 80% of eyes focusing, but inflexible

Photoreceptor responsible for day vision, less light sensitive, with higher visual sharpness, as well as color vision (3 opsins determine color by wavelength of light, red, blue, green)

neurons where on and off regions are superimposed, everywhere detects both white and black bars on gray

group of neurons in the cortex that can be penetrated by a probe with indentical receptive fields

the science of measuring and defining colors in a way that matches how an average person, someone with normal color vision, would see the color

when a color deficient patient can identify colors to typical objects, but not the names of the colors themselves

a value out of 100 that signifies that the illuminant causes objects look the same as they would in natural daylight, or if it distorts the coloration, calculated by taking the difference between the predicted percieved color under the illuminant and the perceived color under natural light

complete color deficiency, very rare, caused by being a monochromat with only rods or tbis that cause anhilation of color sensitive blobs

when a color deficient patient can identify the names of colors, but cannot apply those names to typical objects

same as low spatial frequency, the spatial scale that processes coarse details, processed by neurons with large recpetive feidls, such as those in the periphery, but also everywhere by neurons with large receptive feilds

Muscle that changes the curvature of the lens

if there is alot of light in a certain of part of the visible light spectrum, adaptation supresses response from the corresponding cones to perceive the true colors

when a stimulus changes without the observer noticing

total color blindness caused by brain damage, not ocular damage

clumping or damage to the proteins in the lens that causes hardness that prevents changes in curvature of the lens, causes progressive loss of vision, reduced retinal illumintation, scattering of the light, treated with surgery in which the crystalline lens is broken inside the protein capsule, dragged out, and replaced with a plastic one with a chemical that protects against UV bleaching

when the brightness of a certain perceptual object is influenced by the brightness of surrounding objects

perception built on sensory input/stimulus driven responses; sensation

where color sensitive neurons are hoursed in columns

when the visual field contralateral to brain damage can still have some artificial "sight" or processing of visual information

where the optic disc is (the place in whch rgcs become myelinated) no photoreceptors, and in a section of the fovea

when one image is being seen by both eyes that oscillate between the two images and in each instant one is dominant and one is supressed, or there are two different images one from each eye and they are combined and one becomes dominant

-disparity(subtle change in world view between each eye)
-vergence(qual movement of the eyes to a certain point)
-accomodation (focusing of the eye)

hearing

neural processes that prioritize certain stimuli over other
ie: tuning out background music

when the cornea is not spherical, causing points of light to be imaged in elongated distributions, corrected with a cylindrical (non spherical) lens

Low viscosity fluid between cornea and lens

the fact that things like tv and movies is nopt actuall motion, the use of repeated flashes of of about 24 fps to produce the iollusoon of a moving figure

when eye fails to qualify as emmetropic, has some refractive error

reduced visual acuity that cannot be corrected by refractive means, and is not attributable to structured or pathological ocular anomalies (brain problems) must be 20/30 or more

a late thenth century, early eleventh century scientist who created what's known as the first theory of perception as intromission by seeing that objects are only visible under certain luminances, and that the retina of animal's eyes are damaged with prolonged sun exposure, suggesting that light rays are somehow entering the eyes and are sensed

inability to read

motion blindness, damage sustained to mt+ usually a cva, like in the first case discovered by zeki of a woman who lost all motion perception and saw the world in flashes that popped in and out of existence

color mixing in which the distribution of wavelegths that resemble "blue, green, and red" are added together to elicit the same distribution as something like yellow, purple, aqua, or orange that stimulates the corresponding cones with a distribution that elicits that color, tends towards white, common with light

decreased response to a stimulus after repetition
ie:ticking clock

when a hemianopic can locate targets by saccades or pointing

the eye's ability to change its focus from distat to near objects
-far: ciliary muscle relaxed, fibers taut, lens, minimum strength
-near: ciliary muscle contract, fibers slack, lens is rounded for stronger focus

1mm thick
functions for protection and optical power
contains cornea an sclera
cornea very transparent for light sensitivity, but also protective
sclera shell of the eye to support and maintain shape