GA Exam 1

Lying face DOWN

Lying face UP

In front

Behind you

*Only used when comparing the structures on the limbs, not be used w/ structures on the trunk

Something that is located on the opposite side of the body or structure (left arm, right leg)

Same side of the body/sturcture (left arm, left leg)

-Superficial skin and inner lining of organs, cavities, blood vessels
-Avascular (Few or no blood vessels)
-Made up almost entirely by cells

Covers surfaces, inside and out (skin, blocks entrance for bacteria to enter)

Single layer vs Stacked layer

apperas to be multiple layers, but is actually a single layer of epithelium

Diverse group of tissues that connect body parts together

Cells
-fibroblasts (fiber-creators), fat cells and resident and wandering immune cells
Protein fibers
-majority collagen, but also elastic and reticular
Ground Substance
-Thin gel in proper connective tissue

-made of the protein collagen
-Tough, flexible and resists stretching
-Collagen has a glistening, pearly, white appearance

Stretchy like rubber bands
has the ability to stretch and recoil back to original shape (how we can pinch skin and it recoils back)

Made of type 3 collagen
Forms a net-like structure
Found in endocrine glands, liver, lymph organs

Fibrous (Fibers)
Adipose (fat)
Supportive (Bone, cartilage)
Fluid (blood)

Connect muscle to bone
- tendons are connective tissue

connect bones to other bones
- ligaments are connective tissue

Forms when connective tissue are arranged in enveloping sheets that surround structures

Function:
-Connects and organizes body tissues
-Stores water and fat
-Liquid btwn fascial sheets provide lubrication for movement
-mechanical protection against blows
-pathway for nerves and blood vessels to enter and exit muscles

Loose connective tissue/ loose in organization

-Found deep to the skin universally in the body, rich in adipose tissue

Tougher/thicker than superficial (ex. thin sheet enclosing muscle)

Blends w/ periosteum (fibrous sheath that covers bones) to connect to bone
lacks in adipose (fat) and extends inward to subdivide muscles and wrap around neurovascular bundles

Connects pleura and peritoneum (Thorax and abdomen) to body wall

Cartilage connective tissue
-Weaker than bone, but more flexible and resilient
-Contains water, collagen and cells

Produce the matrix of cartilage

Mature cartilage cells that maintain the matrix

Avascular, few or no blood vessels
Mostly made of water
-** Resistant to compression (like a basketball/ beach ball, notice the difference in resistance)
-Vulnerable to twisting and bending (tears easily)

Provides...
-a gliding surface for joints
-a model for bone formation/ growth

Can be used in skeletal structure where flexibility or resistance to breaking is useful
ex. Costal (rib) cartilages, allows rib to move when breathing in, bc ribs are connected to cartilage

Most abundant type of cartilage
found in areas such as trachea, larynx, joints, ends of bones

Shock absorbing cartilage
- resists stretch and compaction
found in intervertebral discs, knee joints, pelvis

1. protection of vital structures/form rigid walls of cavities
2. support for body
3. Mechanical basis for movement, provide atachments for muscles and provide levers for other bones
4. Development of blood cells, such as red bone marrow in ends of long bones, in sternum and ribs, vertebrae and skull
5. Mineral storage, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium

Growth btwn 2 parts (Shaft of bone)

Growth at ends

lateral, medial

Axial/appendicular, shape

Skull
Vertebral column
Sternum & ribs

Pectoral girdle (clavicle and scapula)
Pelvic girdle (pubis, ilium & ischium)
Upper limbs (Humerus, radius and ulna)
lower limbs (femur, tibia and fibula)

Long (Tubular)
Short (cuboidal, only wrist and ankle)
Flat/squamous (found in axial, protective functions)
irregular (any shape other than long, flat, or short)
sesamoid (knee cap/patella, develops in tendons)

Attached to bones, cells are long and multinucleated

Sheets within organs and blood vessels
cells are shorter, contract together as a unit

Found only within the heart
Contact together as a unit

Origin: where the muscle connects from, Insertion: where the muscle attaches too
Origin has a less mobile end, insertion has a more mobile end

A neuron that innervates a muscle

One motor neuron innervates many muscle fibers

gross

Fine

stem cells

long, multinucleated adult cells

adult muscle cells cannot divide to produce new adult muscle cells

expansion of existing adult muscle cells and increases in contractile protein mass within

stem cell division to produce new adult muscle cells

Muscles found within the region where their action occurs

Muscles found outside the area where their action occurs

muscle fiber

Fascicles, fascia

tendons

whole muscle btwn tendons reffered to as the belly

tendons of some muscles form flat sheets, connecting to other muscles

one whole, central tendon, fascicles on one side of the tendon

one whole, central tendon. Fascicles on both side of the tendon

multiple fascicles/muscle fibers onto one tendon (like multiple feathers)

Two tendons and a muscle belly

For parallel: width of tendon~~width of belly

Broad to a narrow site

Usually an area w/ a large amount of force

Parallel: More shortening possible

Pennate: more force produced

Flexion, Extension/ hyperextension
abduction, adduction
circumduction
medial/internal rotation
laterla/external rotation
elevation or depression

arthroses, articulations

stability and mobility

synarthroses and diarthroses

highly stable, but low to no mobility (diarthroses have more mobility, but less stable/more prone to injury)

connective tissues (broadly speaking)

fibrous synarthrose

fibrous connective tissue that joins two bones
found in the skull

fibrous synarthroses

two bones joined by a wide sheet or membrane

fibrous synarthroses

like a pet and socket , surfaces of the bones are adapted to each other
tooth in jaw

cartilaginous synarthroses

hyaline cartilage directly connects two bones (ex. epiphyseal planes/ growth planes)

cartilagenous synarthroses

pad of tilage connects two bones
common in weight-bearing locations (ex. pubic)

another name for diarthroses

joint capsule of fibrous tissue
joint cavity enclosed by capsule
synovial membrane lining capsule
synovial fluid covering joint surfaces
hyaline (articular) cartilage covering joint surfaces

Uniaxial
- hinge, pivot
Biaxial
- condyloid, saddle
Triaxial
- plane, ball n socket

-produced by cell in the synovial membrane
-nourishes the hyaline cartilage
-made up w similar things as blood plasma, +2 ingredients that add viscosity and lubrication

-synovial fluid viscosity decreases when joints move quickly and when temps are higher

the brain and spinal cord

all the nerves that exit from brain or spinal cord

bundles of axons thhat emerge from the brain

bundles of axons that emerge from the spinal cord

HIGH, need lots of glucose and oxygen

Neurons: conduct nerve impulses from one part of body to another

-High metabolic rate, needs alot of glucose and oxygen
-most last the lifetime of an individual
Non-mitotic (諸説あり)

Cell body (Nucleus)
Dendrites (Short processes off the body that receive nerve impulses)
Axon (Long process through which the neuron sends an impulse)

the "bubbles" covering the axon
Allows signals to travel well and fast

No nerve impulses, but support, protect and nourish neurons
Aid in recovery from injury

compared to neurons, glial cells are smaller and mitotic
Cell body~~Astrocyte
Axons n myelin sheaths~~Oligodendrocyte

Specialized immune cells for the brain

A junction btwn neurons

-May contain many synapses due to each cell having many dendrites

Presynaptic neuron is before the synapse, postsynaptic is after ther synapse

glial cells that makes the myelin sheath

thick layer right under the skull

Second layer, under the Dura mater

-Has little spider-ish legs, allows to lift iself away from under layer to create the subarachnoid space

cerebral spinal fluid

Layer directly on the brain

syrius (the bumps)
and
Sulcus (Valleys inward)

cell bodies, tracts

Cell bodies have nucleus, so tend to be lying near the middle to be protected

Cerebrum, Brain stem, and cerebellum

Thought/consciousness/intellect
reasoning
language
memory
judgment
voluntary motor
visual
auditory

Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal
Insula

Primary motor complex : skeletal muscle activity
Pre-motor cortex: planes and coordinates skeletal muscle movement
Other functions: Personality, cognition, decision making, planning, language functions

Somatosensory cortex: Postcentral gyrus, interprets sensory info coming in

Olfactory(smell) and auditory info

Primary visual cortex: receives visual input
Other functions: interprets visual input and associated memories

proprioception (where your body is in space)
-used to learn skills

Hypothalamus
limbic system
thalamus

Medulla oblongata
Pons
Midbrain

Autonomic nervous system and endocrine system

Regulation of body temp
Control of emotional behavior
control of food and water intake

Fear center

Forms, consolidates and retrieves memories

Acts as a filter for somatosensory info
-Directs sensory info to the correctcerebrum location and sends info abt where the sensation is coming from
-can also edit, amplify, or diminish info heading to the cerebral cortex

Thalamus

-Made up of many individual nuclei w/ discrete functions
-Many centers of control for limb and eye motor movements

Sensory and motor tracts that connect the brain to the spinal cord

All communication btwn brain an spinal cord involves tracts through Medulla

Also has several nuclei for the cardiac and respiratory center

motor, sensory

Brain and body

Continous w/ brainstem
Cord itself extends from foramen magnum to L1-L2 then ends in cauda equina

Travels in vertebral canal, protected by bone, ligaments, meninges, and CSF