1What is nutrition?
Applied biochemistry and physiology
2What is diet formulation?
A combination of applied nutrition plus economics
3What is nutrient allocation?
Determining the most effective way to utilize a source of nutrients
4What are nutrients?
Essential parts of the diet
5What are the 6 essential nutrients?
Water, protein, carbohydrates, lipids/fats, minerals, and vitamins
6What are carbohydrates (CHO)?
End product of photosynthesis that acts as a basic energy source
7What are the two types of carbohydrates?
Structural and Nonstructural
8What are structural carbohydrates?
Not digestible by mammalian enzymes (resistant to digestion)
9What are nonstructural carbohydrates?
Easy to digest
10What are proteins?
Macromolecules made up of amino acids
11What are proteins fully consisted of?
Nitrogen, essential amino acids, and nonessential amino acids
12How many essential amino acids are there?
10
13How many nonessential amino acids are there?
10
15What are lipids soluble in?
Organic solvent
16What are lipids made of?
2 essential fatty acids that must be consumed in your diet
17What are minerals?
Rocks, inorganic
18What are the two types of minerals?
Macrominerals and microminerals
19What can occur when there is an imbalance of minerals?
Death
20What are macrominerals?
A percentage of the diet
21What are microminerals?
Parts per million (ppm) or billion (ppb)
22What are the macrominerals?
Ca, P, Na, Cl, K, Mg, S
23What are the microminerals?
Mn, Zn, Fe, Cu, Se, Co, Mo, I, Cr, Fl
24What are the two types of vitamins?
Water and fat soluble
25What are the fat soluble vitamins?
A, D, E, K (ADEK)
26What is special to water soluble vitamins?
They need to be consumed daily, and they are hard to be toxic since it gets peed out
27What are the water soluble vitamins?
B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B6 (pyridoxine), B12 (cyanocobalamin), Niacin, folic acid, biotin, choline, pantothenic acid, Vitamin C
28What do all organic molecules contain?
Energy/calories
29What makes water so special?
It is clean and abundant
30What happens when an animal does not have access to water?
Their dry matter intake decreases and they don't eat enough food
31What are enzymes?
Biological catalysts that increase the rate of reaction
32What do enzymes do and how?
They increase biochemical reactions by interacting with reactants and products to increase the likelihood of the reaction occuring
33What are proenzymes/zymogens?
Secreted or produced by the body in an inactive form, and must be activated to work
34What is metabolism?
The sum of all biochemical reactions in the body
35What does it mean for the metabolism when there are more reactions occuring in the body?
The metabolism gets faster
36What are the two types of metabolism?
Anabolism and catabolism
37What is anabolism?
The biosynthesis or building of more complex molecules, which requires energy
38What is catabolism?
The degradation or break down of nutrients and other complex molecules, which releases energy
39What is the relationship between anabolic and catabolic reactions?
Catabolic reactions provide the energy anabolic reactions require
40What is the lumen?
A mechanism outside of the body where digestion occurs (GI Tract)
41What is digestive physiology?
The study of the digestive system including what it is made of, diet selection, dietary strategies, and how it affects an animals ability to derive nutrients from feedstuff
42What are the two types of digestion?
Auto and alloenzymatic digestion
43What is autoenzymatic digestion?
Digestion using mammalian enzymes (the mammal produces/secretes the enzymes)
44What is alloenzymatic digestion?
Digestion using microbial enzymes (the microbes living in the animal's lumen provides the enzymes)
45What type of digestion occurs in a pig's stomach?
Autoenzymatic
46What type of digestion occurs in a pig's small intestine?
Autoenzymatic
47What type of digestion occurs in a pig's large intestine?
Alloenzymatic
48What type of digestion occurs in a horse's stomach?
Autoenzymatic
49What type of digestion occurs in a horse's small intestine?
Autoenzymatic
50What type of digestion occurs in a horse's large intestine?
Alloenzymatic
51What is the primary site of digestion in a pig?
Small intestine
52What is a monogastric stomach?
A stomach that has only one compartment to it
53What are ruminants?
Animals with a four compartment stomach
54What are pseudoruminants?
Animals with a three compartment stomach (camel, llama, alpaca)
55Where does fermentation occur in ruminants?
Reticulorumen (reticulum + rumen)
56What is considered the "true stomach" of the ruminant system?
Abomasum
57What type of digestion occurs in a cow's reticulorumen?
Alloenzymatic
58What type of digestion occurs in a cow's abomasum?
Autoenzymatic
59What type of digestion occurs in a cow's small intestine?
Autoenzymatic
60What type of digestion occurs in a cow's large intestine?
Alloenzymatic
61What is the reticulorumen?
A large fermentation bath with lots of microbes
62What is absorption?
Moving particles from the lumen into the body
63What is secretion?
Moving particles from the body into the lumen
64What do sphincters do?
Slow the rate of movement to allow the body to absorb and go through the digestive system (gives the body time to make food particles small)
65What is hindgut fermentation?
The majority of fermentation is microbial digestion after the small intestine (mainly a horse)
66What is foregut fermentation?
The majority of fermentation occurs before the small intestine (ruminants)
67What is the rate of passage (Kp)?
How fast digesta moves
68What is the rate of digesta (Kd)?
How fast digesta is digested
69What is the extent of digestion?
The amount absorbed in a percentage
70How do you calculate the extent of digestion?
Kd/(Kd+Kp)
71What is the purpose of mixing food with saliva?
Helps with the lubrication of food and aids swallowing
72What are the functions of the stomach?
Storage, mixing, secretion, digestion, and absorption
73What is the pH of the stomach?
1-3
74What does the low pH of the stomach do/aid in?
Sterilizes (kills any ingested bacteria), cause some hydrolisis of proteins and polysaccharides, denaturation of proteins, and activates pepsinogen into active pepsin
75How do the Kp and Kd work together?
They don't, they work against each other
76What is buffer and what does it do?
HCO3-, increases the pH and prevents acid from damaging the stomach's surface
77What does mucus consist of?
Glycoproteins
78What does mucus do?
Protects the stomach lining from being digested by the enzymes and strong acid secreted into the stomach
79What is an ulcer?
Damage to the surface of the stomach
80What is enzymatic digestion?
When hydrolytic enzymes break bonds by inserting H2O
81What are the Folds of Rugae?
Stomah tissue that allows it to stretch
82What is the Gastroesophageal Sphincter?
Separates the stomach and the esophagus, prevents acid and digesta from going up the esophagus
83What is GERD?
Gastroesophageal reflux disease where the sphincter doesn't work well and you experience a lot of acid reflux
84What is the esophageal region of the stomach?
The region closest to the esophagus where no glandular secretions occur, with some limited bacteria growth
85What is the cardiac region of the stomach?
After esophogeal region that contains glands that exude mucus
86What is the gastric/peptix/fundus gland region of the stomach?
After the cardiac region, and the site of other gastric secretions like mucus, HCl, and pepsin
87What is the pyloric/antrum region of the stomach?
Region closest to the duodenum, and the site of other gastric secretions like mucus, HCl, pepsin, and endocrine secretions
88What does the pyloric sphincter do?
Determines Kp between the stomach and small intestine, and is regulated hormonally to avoid overloading the digestive capacities of the small intestine
89What is the first section of the small intestine?
Duodenum
90What type of glands are the cardiac glands?
Exocrine glands (mucus and buffer)
91What kind of glands are the oxyntic/peptic glands?
Exocrine glands (acid and enzymes)
92What are the pyloric glands?
Glands that primarily secrete mucus to protect the stomach wall from acid and enzymes, and also produce the hormone gastrin from their G cells to regulate digestion
93What are endocrine glands?
Glands that produce and release hormones into the body through the bloodstream
94What are exocrine glands?
Glands that produce and release hormones into the environment through ducts
95What is it called when something is situated nearer to the center of the body or the point of attachment?
Proximal
96What is it called when something is situated away from the center of the body or the point of attachment?
Distal
97What is the small intestine?
The primary site of digestion and absorption
98What are the functions of the small intestine?
Digestion, absorption, secretion, and high immune function
99What are the three sections of the small intestine from proximal to distal?
Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
100What is digestion?
The preparation of ingested food for absorption
101What is hydrolisis?
The cleavage of a molecule by water, this process normally includes hydrolytic enzymes
102Where are bile salts stored?
The gallbladder
103Where are bile salts made?
The liver
104What are the Islets of Langerhans?
A group of pancreatic cells that secrete glucagon and insulin
105Which type of Islet of Langerhan secretes glucagon?
The alpha cell
106Which type of Islet of Langerhan secretes insulin?
The beta cells
107What is the Brunner's Gland?
A gland on the duodenum that secretes sodium bicarbonate (NA+HCO3-) into the small intestine to increase the pH
108Why does the Brunner's Gland increase the pH of the small intestine?
To protect it and create an optimal pH for enzyme activity
109What are the Kerkring Folds?
Folds within the small intestine that decrease the rate of passage and increase surface area
110Where are the Kerkring Folds larger and closer together in the small intestine?
The proximal (duodenum)
111What happens to the Kerkring Folds as you move distally through the small intestine?
They become smaller and more spread apart
112What happens to the Kerkring Folds as you move proximally through the small intestine?
They become larger and closer together
113What coats the entire small intestine?
Villi
114What are the valleys in between villi?
Crypts
115What is the site of cell renewal?
Crypts between the villi
116What happens to undifferentiated cells on crypts?
They travel up the villus as they mature and then they are pushed off the top of the villus
117What do most undifferentiated cells end up maturing into?
Enterocytes
118What is the venule?
The vein that takes blood away from the villus and brings deoxygenated blood to the heart and lungs
119What is the arteriole?
The vein that brings blood to the villus and takes oxygenated blood away from the heart and lungs
120Approximately what percentage of cells on the villus are enterocytes?
90%
121What is the lifespan of an enterocyte?
7-10 days
122What are microvilli?
Projections on the enterocyte (similar to villi)
123What is the purpose of microvilli?
To increase surface area on enterocytes
124What is the Glycocalyx?
A barrier attached to microvilli that suspends nutrients and enzymes
125What type of transporter is the Sodium Glucose Linked Transporter 1?
Indirect active transporter
126What does the Sodium Glucose Linked Transporter 1 do?
Uses the concentration gradient created by the Na:K:ATP pump to transport glucose
127How does the Sodium Glucose Linked Transporter 1 indirectly use active transportation?
By pumping out/in sodium as glucose gets pumped in/out, this messes with the concentration gradient, forcing the Na:K:ATP pump to work as well, which requires energy
128What is passive diffusion?
When no transporter or ATP is required and molecules can just move with the concentration gradient
129What is facillitated diffusion?
When a transporter is used to help facillitate the diffusion, but no ATP is required as molecules are still moving with the concentration gradient
130What is active transport?
When a transporter and ATP is required for diffusion as the molecule is most likely going against the concentration gradient
131Does active transport mean the molecule is diffusing against the concentration gradient?
No, sometimes it is still moving with the gradient but active
132Which type of digestion is aerobic respiration?
Autoenzymatic digestion
133What type of digestion is anaerobic respiration?
Alloenzymatic digestion
134What type of respiration is fermentation?
Anaerobic
135What is an energy loss during fermentation?
CO2 and CH4 (methane)
136What is it called when you remove the grain from hay?
Straw
137What is coprophagy?
When an animal eats its own feces
138Why do hindgut fermenters eat their own feces?
It is the only way for them to absorb MPL, MCP, and vitamins
139What are hindgut fermenters?
Animals that have majority of their fermentation occur in the large intestine
140What is the main hindgut fermenter?
Horse (pigs too but not as much)
141What are foregut fermenters?
Animals that use a fermentation chamber in their foregut to do majority of their fermentation before the small intestine
142What are the main foregut fermenters?
Ruminants
143What are volatile fatty acids?
Products of fermentation that are absorbed from the reticulorumen and provide energy and glucose
144What are microbial crude proteins?
Products of fermentation that are absorbed from the small intestine and provide amino acids and energy
145What do VFAs provide?
Energy and glucose
146What do MCPs provide?
Amino acids and energy
147What are microbial phospholipids?
Products of fermentation that are absorbed from the small intestine and provide amino acids and energy
148What do MPLs provide?
Amino acids and energy
149What are the products of fermentation?
VFAs, MPLs, MCP, Vitamins, CO2, and CH4
150What is the general pH of fermentation chambers?
6.2-6.5
151What is the stable temperature of fermentation chambers?
39 degrees C (101.5 F)
152What do fermentation chambers have a consistant supply of?
Substrates (food)
153Does the immune system attack rumen microbes?
No
154What occurs in the reticulorumen?
Digesta moves back and forth within the fermentation vat
155What occurs in the omasum?
Water and VFA absorption
156What occurs in the abomasum?
Functions as the true stomach and secretes ME/zymogens, HCl, mucus, and buffers
157What does most of the microbial work?
Bacteria
158What is the largest microbe?
Protozoa
159What happens if protozoa die in ruminants?
The rumen will still function fine, but there will be a decrease in methane production
160What do we know about fungi?
That it is important for fiber digestion in ruminants, but that is all we really know
161What is the hay mat?
The layer below the gas layer of the rumen that is composed of wet hay (can be virtually nonexistant or take up the whole rumen depending on diet)
162What is the reticuluar groove?
Two lips that can close and cause milk to bypass the reticulorumen and go straight to the omasum in newborns
163What happens if milk gets accidentally fermented?
Since it has lots of nutrients, fermenting milk will decrease its value and result in less ATP
164What is the hole that digesta goes through to get to the omasum?
The reticular omasal orifice
165What lines the rumen?
Papillae
166What happens to the papillae as you go lower into the rumen?
They get bigger
167Where does most of the absorption occur in the rumen?
The liquid layer
168What is eructation?
A burp
169How do papillae aid in absorption in the rumen?
They increase the surface area
170What is rumination?
The process of regurgitating firbous ingesta from the rumen to the mouth, remasticating it and reinsalivation, followed by swallowing and returning the material back to the rumen
171What does exocrine mean?
Secreted into the lumen or outside of the body
172What do peristaltic contractions do?
Move digesta towards the anus
173What do antiperistaltic contractions do?
Move towards the mouth
174What does insulin do?
Decrease the blood glucose concentration
175What does glucagon do?
Increase the blood glucose concentration
176What is the primary absorptive cell in the small intestines?
Enterocytes
177What happens to the nutrients concentration in blood when fasting?
It will increasee higher
178What happens to the nutrients concentration in blood when in a fed state?
It will decrease