1 important geologist who proposed the principles of stratigraphy, which included original horizontality, superposition, and faunal (floral) succession. They were based on the first & last appearances of fossils & trace fossils.
Nicolas Steno
2principle that states that sediments are deposited under the influence of gravity as nearly horizontal beds
Law of Original Horizontality
3 principle that states that sediments are deposited under the influence of gravity as nearly horizontal beds
oldest at the bottom, youngest at the top
Law of Superposition
4 the principle that is based on the observation that sedimentary rock strata contain fossilized flora and fauna, and that these fossils succeed each other vertically in a specific reliable order that can be identified over wide horizontal distances
Law of Faunal (Floral) Succession
5remnants or traces of ancient living organism; once living organisms are preserved in sediment & rocks
Fossils
6Examples of fossils
bones, teeth, footprints, burrows, etc.
7 whole bodies or pieces of bodies of a once living organism; anything that at some point made up a part of an organism’s body
Body Fossils
8Examples of body fossils
teeth, nails, claws, molds, frozen wooly mammoth
9 preserved fossils of a biological activity of a once living organism; Evidence that something was there but doesn’t contain actual body parts
Trace Fossils
10Examples of trace fossils
resting or hiding traces (burrows), trace of locomotion (footprint), feeding traces
11fossilized species used to date/correlate strata
Index Fossil
12Index fossils have to be what:
widely distributed, alive for only a short period of time (couple of million years), have distinguishing features that make it easy to identify
13Absolute Dating is also known as
chronometric dating, or radiometric dating
14Absolute Dating consists of
Radioactive decay, potassium argon, argon-argon
15method of dating which doesn’t specify how specifically old or young something
Relative Dating
16how long something takes for something to become 50% of what of it was
Half-life
17 consisted of extinction & speciation events, the laws of stratigraphy, relative & absolute dating techniques; biggest to smallest: eon, era, period, epoch, age
Geologic Time Scale
18the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution
speciation
19large segments of the outer part of the Earth (lithospheric plates) move relative to one another over the asthenosphere (the layers underneath it) (viscous fluid), constantly shift; only move a few cm a year
Plate Tectonics
20Evidence for Plate Tectonics -
obvious fit of continents
Paleoclimate data (glaciers, climate belts) two glaciers from different places fitting together
glacier striations - evidence for existence and distribution of glaciers
climate belts seem to match across continents
Similar fossils separated by oceans
Rock type and structural similarities
21father of continental drift (the idea that mechanism low density continents “floating” on higher ocean floor rocks and “sailing” through them)
Alfred Wegener
23- complex and highly organized systems who take energy from their environment and change it from one form to another
life
24Life is
homeostatic (self-regulating),respond to stimuli, reproduce themselves, organisms generally grow & develop, and are adapted to their environment
25organisms with no nucleus cell and no other organelles
Prokaryotes
26 cell membrane, nucleus with DNA, organelles, bigger & more complex organisms
Eukaryotes
27self feeding organisms; eating is done through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
Autotrophic
28 organisms who feed off of other organisms
Heterotrophic
29The Big Five Mass Extinctions
The-end Permian mass extinction - known as “The Great Dying”
The end-Ordovician mass extinction
The late Devonian mass extinction
Triassic - 20% of all families in Paleozoic Marine Ecosystem died
Cretaceous - 15% of all families in Paleozoic Marine Ecosystem died
30What percent of all families in the Paleozoic Marine Ecosystem died in the Permian mass extinction?
52%
31What percent of all species dies in the Permian mass extinction?
77% to 92%
32What started the mesozoic
Permian Mass Extinction
33What caused the Permian Mass Extinction?
Giant Eruption plus an impact
34What percent of all families died in the Paleozoic Marine Ecosystem in the Ordovician Mass Extinction?
22%
35What caused the Ordovician mass extinction?
climate change (ice change)
36What percent of all families died in the Paleozoic Marine Ecosystem in the Devonian Mass Extinction?
21%
37What caused the Devonian mass extinction?
oceanic crisis or possibly an impact
38What percent of all families died in the Paleozoic Marine Ecosystem in the Triassic Mass Extinction?
20%
39What caused the Triassic mass extinction?
large eruption, possible with impact
40What percent of all families died in the Paleozoic Marine Ecosystem in the Cretaceous Mass Extinction?
15%
41What caused the Cretaceous mass extinction?
impact + giant eruption
42What happened in the Cretaceous period?
mammals took over
43Linnean classification system
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
44(1769-1832)- father of vertebrate paleontology, came up w/ Catastrophism
Georges Cuvier
45 - the idea that earth has been affected by sudden, short-lived, violent events that were sometimes worldwide in scope
Catastrophism
46(1744-1829) - came up with the idea of acquired traits
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
47species acquired traits over time to better adapt to their environment
acquired traits
48 (1797-1875) - wrote Principles of Geology* (1830-1833)
` came up with uniformitarianism
Charles Lyell
49- the idea that things happen uniformly
uniformitarianism
50(1809-1882) - sailed on a the HMS Beagle in 1831
is a naturalist (person who studies the natural world)
voyage was 5 years (1831-1836)
Charles Darwin
51descent with modification; change in biological species and/or gene frequencies (genetics) in a population over time
Evolution
52 traits are inherited from parent to offspring, organisms vary, too many offspring are produced to survive, organisms with traits suited for the environment will survive and reproduce, passing the traits off to the next generation
Natural Selection
53comparative anatomy (comparative morphology), analogy, homology, vestigial structures, embryology, biogeography, experimental evidence (selective breeding and/or artificial breeding), paleontology, evolution, natural selection
Evidence for Evolution
54 the comparison of similarities and differences in anatomy (structure) of different kinds of animals
comparative anatomy (or comparative morphology)
55structures which serve similar functions but derive from different origins
Analogy
56Examples of analogy
bat & bird wing
57structures deriving from similar origins or use, exhibiting a common underlying plan and serving similar purposes
homology
58 structures that remain in an organism but serve no purpose
vestigial structures
59examples of vestigial structures
human tail bones
60the study of the development of organisms
embryology
61the study of the patterns in the distribution of plants and animals over the earth; study of where species exist on earth
biogeography
62man-made or artificial selection shows the effects of selection within the relatively short time period of record human history
experimental evidence
63an array of populations that can interbreed and reproduce isolated from other populations, can reproduce with other species, and are in a natural state
Species
64classification method which uses homologous characters to draw evolutionary relationships through time between ancestors and descendants
Phylogenetic Systematics
65classification method, which uses specific homologous characters to draw evolutionary interpretations between organisms
Cladistics
66a primitive trait that’s inherited from ancestors
Plesiomorph
67 a derived trait that’s newly evolved
Apomorph
68a shared primitive trait
Symplesiomorph
69a shared derived trait
Synapomorph
70dinosaur fossil that was found by Gideon Mantel (1790-1852) in 1822
Iguanadon
71(1804-1892), coined the term “dinosauria”; formed the Dinosaurs as a reptile concept
Richard Owen
72a term coined by Richard Owen that combined the words deinos, meaning “fearfully great”, and saurus, meaning “lizard”, making it a “fearfully great lizard”
Dinosauria
73means “heavy lizard”; was the 1st skeleton found in 1858 and was reconstructed as biped (walking on 2 feet); studied by Joseph Leidy (1823-1891) who was the father of vertebrate Paleontology;
Hadrosaurus
74 were thought to be “evolutionary failures” and “slow, brutish, dim-witted”
Early views of dinos
75John Ostrom stated that dinosaurs were the ancestors of birds; Robert bakker thought that Dinosaurs were fast, agile, and active; an increase in technology showed that dinosaurs were diverse and that avian animals were not dinosaurs
Modern views of dinos
76 all members have a single common ancestor
Monophyletic
77 all members are descendants of a single common ancestor
Holophyletic
78members are descended from different ancestors (poly means “many”, so think “many ancestors”)
Polyphyletic
79 some members are descendants of a single common ancestor
Paraphyletic
80- took place 500-544 Ma; had the 1st conspicuous fossil record, cells evolved to have tough walls and coverings, but not mineralized, most animals have mineralized exterior (calcium carbonate, silica, calcium phosphate), evolution of hard increased fossil record (ex. Trilobites, exoskeletons)
Cambrian explosion
81a diverse arthropod that existed during the Cambrian period
Trilobites
82 outer skeletons
Exoskeletons
83Vertebrae origins -
invertebrates with notochords, ancestors to chordata
84nerve chord running along the back of the body
Notochord
85sea squirts, ancestors of vertebrates who lack skeletons or limbs
Urochordates/Cephalochordates
86no jaw, bony gill arches (4th gill arch modified to hyoid arch), teeth present, had the 1st jaws to evolve in a way for respiration regulation
Agnathans
87 1st gill arch became jaws w/ scales becoming teeth, and 2nd gill arch moved forward to support jaws, muscles and defined teeth, no jaw, bony gill arches, gill arch was modified to hyoid arch
Gill Arches
88bony fish, cold-blooded vertebrates, breathe through gills (1 pair)and use fins for swimming
Osteichthyes
89tough skin w/ no scales; cartilage rather than bones, fossil outlines show they stayed mostly the same in shape. Devonian to present
Chondrichthyes
90 has fully ossified skeleton, has all traits that came after fully ossified skeleton, very thin fins (webs of skin) that are supported by numerous thin and are used for steering & defense, radiating bones; light fish that can swim fast & maneuver well b/c of powerful tails, 95% of the 25,000 species of fish
Actinopterygians
91bony fish w/ lobbed pair fins that are joined to body w/ a single bone; have calcified lungs that only serve as storage/fat; differentiated arm bones (humerus, ulna), similar to tetrapods, thought to be the only known fossil record but was found to still exist in the African coast in 1999
Crossopterygii
92 teeth characterized by folded sheets of dentine; found in extinct amphibians & advanced fish, differentiated arm bones (ulma, humerus) and teeth
Labyrinthodont
93 four footed tetrapoda; differentiated arm bones (humerus, ulna)
Amphibia
94soils, plant life, invertebrates, vertebrates
Evolution of Life on land
95What was soil made out of at the very beginning?
only parent material; no organic matter
96What happened to the soil?
Desiccation resistant algae was present, silurian transition to true soil, development of widespread roots in clay in Antartica
root secretions develop soil chemistry
97True soils were
made up of organic matter; present in Devonian
98Where did plants begin?
In the water
99What did plants need to adapt to?
gravity meant that they needed a rigid structure, lack of bouyancy
100Land plants were
in danger of drying out, limited to waterlogged habitats, close stomata to stop water loss, vascular tissue waves, extreme temps, gas exchange, lack of nutrients in air
101How did plants combat extreme temps?
symbiotic relationship with fungi
102When did all plant adaptations (outside fruit and flowers) occur?
Devonian
103 first animals on land, interstitial animals, different groups came in waves, convergent evolution, tracheal systems, jointed, thicker and larger legs, behavioral changes, reproduction through eggs
Invertebrates
104limbs - allow them to withstand air exposure while finding other water sources, fins to limbs transition -> helped to hunt prey in shallow water, sunning, to increase metabolism, reproduction
Vertebrates
105What problems came with life on land?
gas exchange, need for structural support
106How was the problem with gas exchange solved?
lungs, nostrils
107How was the problem with structural support solved?
limbs, vertebrae
108What were advantages of breathing air?
It's easier to extract oxygen from the air as opposed to the sea, gills have to work harder to get oxygen from the water, seasonal oxygen levels can decrease, oxygen poor air is rare on the surface
109Evolution of Limbs
spine along the central axis that followed up to the head, spine with appendages
110Evolution of better swimming mechanisms-
powerful tales for swimming, fins mostly used for steering or defense
1112 major lineages of Amphibia
Anura ( includes all frogs and toads.), Caudata ( includes all salamanders and newts)
112a condition in which vertebral elements (central, arches) remain as separate units; 3 types of vertebrae
Aspidospondyly
113elements of the vertebrae are fused into a single piece; centra have hollow core allowing for notochord to pass through
Lepospondyly
114 1st Devonian tetrapods to be described & studied in 1932; resemble salamanders, have limbs for bearing weight but not full exercise,
Ichthyostegalia
115a group of extinct reptile-like amphibian-like tetrapod, life was primarily in water, legs not sturdy or good for squirming, closest relative to early reptiles
Anthracosauria
116small-bodied, 5-fingered limbs, small skull & short jaw, neck joint for swiftness, carnivorous; smaller body was easier to heat up & cool down
Early Reptiles
117- forests - seed ferns, cycads, conifers, carboniferous land floras
Paleozoic Plant Ecology
118How did amphibians and reptiles develop?
Amphibians had metamorphosis while reptiles developed directly
119Amphibians were ____ w/ many ____ while reptiles had ____ w/ _______
naked, glands, scales, few glands
120Reptiles had a _______ while amphibians had _____ for their eggs
shell, no shell but a jelly covering
121Who had amniotic eggs?
Reptiles
122Reptiles fertilized _______ while amphibians fertilized ______
internally, externally
123Amphibians and reptiles are...
oviparous
124Amphibians have...
gills, skin, and some lungs
125Reptiles have...
lungs only
126They help to protect & nourish the embryo
Advantage of Amniotic Egg
127regulation of body heat
Thermoregulation
128 no holes in skull behind orbit (no eye hole); “temporal fenestrae”, primitive condition that’s present in fishes & amphibians
Anapsids
1292 holes in skull; dinosaurs, pterosaurs, all amniotes outside mammals
Diapsids
130-1 skull behind orbit mammals, pelycosaurs, therapsids
Synapsids
131All early synapsids are pelycosaurs, heavy sprawling limbs, strong stiff vertebral column, long jaw, sharp-pointed teeth, vegetarian, wide bodies, thermoregulation through fin on their back; restricted to the tropics
Pelycosaurs
132 diapsid reptiles containing all reptiles more closely related to archosaurs rather than lepidosaurs; appeared during the late Middle Permian or Late Permian
Archosauromorph
133modern lizards, all diapsids closer to lizards than to archosaurs
Lepidosauromorphs
134angle between upper & lower limbs = 90 degrees, s-shaped upper limb bone, no ball head on upper socket joint, short lower limb bones, bent ankle hinge
Sprawling posture
135intermediate form, angle between upper & lower limb is >90 angle
Semi-erect posture
136 angle between upper and lower limb bones, 180 degrees; straight upper limb bones, ball head on upper socket join, long lower limb bones, straight ankle hinge
Fully Erect posture
137Fully erect posture types
plantigrade, digitigrade
138walk on the soles of your feet
Plantigrade
139walk on toes
Digitigrade
140a part of the sprawling posture stance
Bent ankle hinge
141a part of the fully-erect posture stance
Straight ankle hinge
142forelimb, hindlimb, upper limb, humerus, femur, lower limb, radius, ulna, tibia, fibula, hinge joint, wrist, ankle, manus, pes, terminus, carpals, tarsals, metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges
Tetrapod limb morphology